Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T08:59:16.276Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Central Nervous System Manifestations of COVID-19: A Critical Review and Proposed Research Agenda

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 April 2021

Kelsey C. Hewitt Open the ORCID record for Kelsey C. Hewitt [Opens in a new window] ,
David E. Marra Open the ORCID record for David E. Marra [Opens in a new window] ,
Cady Block Open the ORCID record for Cady Block [Opens in a new window] ,
Lucette A. Cysique Open the ORCID record for Lucette A. Cysique [Opens in a new window] ,
Daniel L. Drane ,
Michelle M. Haddad ,
Emilia Łojek ,
Carrie R. McDonald ,
Anny Reyes  and
Kara Eversole
...Show all authors
Kelsey C. Hewitt
Affiliation:
Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Neurology, Atlanta, GA30329, USA
David E. Marra
Affiliation:
University of Florida, Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, Gainesville, FL32610, USA
Cady Block*
Affiliation:
Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Neurology, Atlanta, GA30329, USA
Lucette A. Cysique
Affiliation:
University of New South Wales, Department of Psychology, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, 3004, Australia St. Vincent’s Applied Medical Research Centre, Sydney, New South Wales, 2011, Australia
Daniel L. Drane
Affiliation:
Emory University School of Medicine, Department of Neurology, Atlanta, GA30329, USA Emory University, Department of Pediatrics, Atlanta, GA30322, USA
Michelle M. Haddad
Affiliation:
Emory University, Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Atlanta, GA30329, USA
Emilia Łojek
Affiliation:
University of Warsaw, Department of Psychology, Warszawa, 00-183, Poland
Carrie R. McDonald
Affiliation:
University of California-San Diego, Department of Psychiatry, La Jolla, CA92093, USA
Anny Reyes
Affiliation:
University of California-San Diego, Department of Psychiatry, La Jolla, CA92093, USA
Kara Eversole
Affiliation:
James Madison University, Department of Graduate Psychology, Harrisonburg, VA22807, USA
Dawn Bowers
Affiliation:
University of Florida, Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, Gainesville, FL32610, USA
*
*Correspondence and reprint requests to: Cady Block, Emory Brain Health Center, 12 Executive Park Atlanta, GA 30329, USA. E-mail: cady.block@emory.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objective:

On March 11, 2020, the World Health Organization declared an outbreak of a new viral entity, coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19), to be a worldwide pandemic. The characteristics of this virus, as well as its short- and long-term implications, are not yet well understood. The objective of the current paper was to provide a critical review of the emerging literature on COVID-19 and its implications for neurological, neuropsychiatric, and cognitive functioning.

Method:

A critical review of recently published empirical research, case studies, and reviews pertaining to central nervous system (CNS) complications of COVID-19 was conducted by searching PubMed, PubMed Central, Google Scholar, and bioRxiv.

Results:

After considering the available literature, areas thought to be most pertinent to clinical and research neuropsychologists, including CNS manifestations, neurologic symptoms/syndromes, neuroimaging, and potential long-term implications of COVID-19 infection, were reviewed.

Conclusion:

Once thought to be merely a respiratory virus, the scientific and medical communities have realized COVID-19 to have broader effects on renal, vascular, and neurological body systems. The question of cognitive deficits is not yet well studied, but neuropsychologists will undoubtedly play an important role in the years to come.

Keywords

CoronavirusBrainNeuropsychologyCognitionCognitive functionMental health
Type
Critical Review
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 28 , Issue 3 , March 2022 , pp. 311 - 325
Copyright
Copyright © INS. Published by Cambridge University Press, 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Kelsey C. Hewitt and David E. Marra contributed equally to this work.

References

REFERENCES

Ahmad, I., & Rathore, F.A. (2020). Neurological manifestations and complications of COVID-19: A literature review. Journal of Clinical Neuroscience, 77, 8–12. doi: 10.1016/j.jocn.2020.05.017 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Al Saiegh, F., Ghosh, R., Leibold, A., Avery, M.B., Schmidt, R.F., Theofanis, T., … Wang, Z.X. (2020). Status of SARS-CoV-2 in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with COVID-19 and stroke. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 91(8), 846–848. doi: 10.1136/jnnp-2020-323522 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alkeridy, W.A., Almaglouth, I., Alrashed, R., Alayed, K., Binkhamis, K., Alsharidi, A., & Liu-Ambrose, T. (2020). A unique presentation of delirium in a patient with otherwise asymptomatic COVID-19. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 68(7), 1382–1384. doi: 10.1111/jgs.16536 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, D.E., Tan, C.W., Chia, W.N., Young, B.E., Linster, M., Low, J.H., … Lye, D.C. (2020). Lack of cross-neutralization by SARS patient sera towards SARS-CoV-2. Emerging Microbes & Infections, 9(1), 900–902.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, R.M., Heesterbeek, H., Klinkenberg, D., & Hollingsworth, T.D. (2020). How will country-based mitigation measures influence the course of the COVID-19 epidemic? Lancet, 395(10228), 931–934.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Armengol, C.G. (1998). Attentional and self-regulation deficits in severe anoxia: Implications for rehabilitation. The Rehabilitation Professional, 6, 24–29.Google Scholar
Baig, A.M., Khaleeq, A., Ali, U., & Syeda, H. (2020). Evidence of the COVID-19 virus targeting the CNS: Tissue distribution, host−virus interaction, and proposed neurotropic mechanisms. ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 11, 995−998.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bao, Y., Sun, Y., Meng, S., Shi, J., & Lu, L. (2020). 2019-nCoV epidemic: Address mental health care to empower society. Lancet, 395(10224), e37–e38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baqui, P., Bica, I., Marra, V., Ercole, A., & van Der Schaar, M. (2020). Ethnic and regional variations in hospital mortality from COVID-19 in Brazil: A cross-sectional observational study. The Lancet Global Health, 8(8), e1018–e1026. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30285-0 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Behrens, L.L, & Naylor, M.D. (2020). “We are alone in this battle”: a framework for a coordinated response to COVID-19 in nursing homes. The Journal of Aging and Social Policy, 32(4–5), 316–322. doi: 10.1080/08959420.2020.1773190 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benussi, A., Pilotto, A., Premi, E., Libri, I., Giunta, M., Agosti, C., … Bonacina, S. (2020). Clinical characteristics and outcomes of inpatients with neurological disease and COVID-19. medRxiv, 95, e910–e920. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000009848 Google ScholarPubMed
Bo, H.X., Li, W., Yang, Y., Wang, Y., Zhang, Q., Cheung, T., … Xiang, Y.T. (2020). Posttraumatic stress symptoms and attitude toward crisis mental health services among clinically stable patients with COVID-19 in China. Psychological Medicine, 1–2. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1017/S0033291720000999 Google ScholarPubMed
Brown, S.M., Wilson, E.L., Presson, A.P., Dinglas, V.D., Greene, T., Hopkins, R.O., … with the National Institutes of Health NHLBI ARDS Network (2017). Understanding patient outcomes after acute respiratory distress syndrome: identifying subtypes of physical, cognitive and mental health outcomes. Thorax, 72(12), 1094–1103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryan, Y.G. (2013). Encephalopathy of infection and systemic inflammation. Journal of Clinical Neurophysiology, 35(5), 454–461.Google Scholar
Bryce, C., Grimes, Z., Pujadas, E., Ahuja, S., Beasley, M.B., Albrecht, R., … Chen, J. (2020). Pathophysiology of SARS-CoV-2: Targeting of endothelial cells renders a complex disease with thrombotic microangiopathy and aberrant immune response. The Mount Sinai COVID-19 autopsy experience. medRxiv. doi: 10.1101/2020.05.18.20099960 Google Scholar
Burki, T. (2020). England and Wales see 20,000 excess deaths in care homes. Lancet, 395(10237), 1602. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31199-5 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burks, J.S., DeVald, B.L., Jankovsky, L.D., & Gerdes, J.C. (1980). Two coronaviruses isolated from central nervous system tissue of two multiple sclerosis patients. Science, 209, 933–934.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cai, J., Sun, W., Huang, J., Gamber, M., Wu, J., & He, G. (2020). Indirect virus transmission in cluster of COVID-19 cases, Wenzhou, China. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12, 26.Google Scholar
Cairns, D.M., Rouleau, N., Parker, R.N., Walsh, K.G., Gehrke, L., & Kaplan, D.L. (2020). A 3D human brain–like tissue model of herpes-induced Alzheimer’s disease. Science Advances, 6(19), eaay8828. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aay8828 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carod-Artal, F.J. (2020). Neurological complications of coronavirus and COVID-19. Revista de Neurologia, 70(9), 311–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
CDC COVID-19 Response Team. (2020). Preliminary estimates of the prevalence of selected underlying health conditions among patients with coronavirus disease 2019 - United States, February 12-March 28, 2020. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(13), 382–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cesari, M., & Montero-Odasso, M. (2020). COVID-19 and older adults. Lessons learned from the Italian epicenter. Canadian Geriatrics Journal, 23(1), 155–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, N., Zhou, M., Dong, X., Qu, J., Gong, F., Han, Y., … Yu, T. (2020). Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of 99 cases of 2019 novel coronavirus pneumonia in Wuhan, China: A descriptive study. The Lancet, 395(10223), 507–513.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheng, V.C.C., Lau, S.K.P., Woo, P.C.Y., & Yuen, K.Y. (2007). Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus as an agent of emerging and reemerging infection. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 20(4), 660–694.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chugh, D., Nilsson, P., Afjei, S.A., Bakochi, A., & Ekdahl, C.T. (2013). Brain inflammation induces post-synaptic changes during early synapse formation in adult-born hippocampal neurons. Experimental Neurology, 250, 176–188 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coen, M., Jeanson, G., Almeida, L.A.C., Hubers, A., Stierlin, F., Najjar, I., … Serratrice, J. (2020). Guillain-Barré syndrome as a complication of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 87, 111–112. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.04.074 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
ARDS Definition Task Force, Ranieri, V.M., Rubenfeld, G.D., Thompson, B.T., Ferguson, N. D., Caldwell, E., … Slutsky, A.S. (2012). Acute respiratory distress syndrome: The Berlin definition. JAMA, 307(23), 2526–2533.Google ScholarPubMed
Department of Health and Human Services 45 C.F.R. § 46.104 (2018). Retrieved from: https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/textidx?SID=ab79fdce8856e732b592983f99043cdb&mc=true&node=se45.1.46_1104&rgn=div8 Google Scholar
Desforges, M., Le Coupanec, A., Dubeau., P., Bourgouin, A., Lajoie, L., Dube, M., & Talbot, P.J. (2020). Human coronaviruses: Underestimated opportunistic pathogens of the central nervous system. Viruses, 12, 14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ECDC Public Health Emergency Team, Danis, K., Fonteneau, L., Georges, S., Daniau, C., Bernard-Stoecklin, S., … Schneider, E. (2020). High impact of COVID-19 in long-term care facilities, suggestion for monitoring in the EU/EEA. European Communicable Disease Bulletin, 25(22), 2000956. doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.22.2000956 Google ScholarPubMed
Ellul, M.A., Benjamin, L., Singh, B., Lant, S., Michael, B.D., Easton, A., … Solomon, T. (2020). Neurological associations of COVID-19. The Lancet Neurology, 19(9), 767–783. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(20)30221-0 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Filatov, A., Sharma, P., Hindi, F., & Espinosa, P.S. (2020). Neurological complications of coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Encephalopathy. Cureus, 12(3), e7352. doi: 10.7759/cureus.7352 Google ScholarPubMed
Fleurence, R.L., Curtis, L.H., Califf, R.M., Platt, R., Selby, J.V., & Brown, J.S. (2014). Launching PCORnet, a national patient-centered clinical research network. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 21(4), 578–582.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fu, L., Wang, B., Yuan, T., Chen, X., Ao, Y., Fitzpatrick, T., … Zou, H. (2020). Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in China: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Infection, 80(6), 656–665. doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.03.041 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Galanopoulou, A.S., Ferastraoaru, V., Correa, D.J., Cherian, K., Duberstein, S., Gursky, J., … Khodakivska, O. (2020). EEG findings in acutely ill patients investigated for SARS-CoV2/COVID-19: A small case series preliminary report. Epilepsia Open, 5(2), 314–324. doi: 10.1002/epi4.12399 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gandhi, S., Srivastava, A.K., Ray, U., & Tripathi, P.P. (2020). Is the collapse of the respiratory center in the brain responsible for respiratory breakdown in COVID-19 patients? ACS Chemical Neuroscience, 11(10), 1379–1381.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gobbi, S., Płomecka, M. B., Ashraf, Z., Radziński, P., Neckels, R., Lazzeri, S., … Jawaid, A. (2020). Worsening of preexisting psychiatric conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11(1407). doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.581426 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gofton, T.E., & Young, G.B. (2012). Sepsis-associated encephalopathy. Nature Reviews Neurology, 8(10), 557.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gould, E., & Shierholz, H. (2020). Not everybody can work from home: Black and Hispanic workers are much less likely to be able to telework [Internet]. Economic Policy Institute. 2020 [cited 2020 Mar 30]. Available from: https://www.epi.org/blog/black-and-hispanicworkers-are-much-less-likely-to-be-able-to-work-from-home/ Google Scholar
Gozal, E., Row, B.W., Schurr, A., & Gozal, D. (2001). Developmental differences in cortical and hippocampal vulnerability to intermittent hypoxia in the rat. Neuroscience Letters, 305(3), 197–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guan, W., Zheng-Yi, N., Hu, Y., Liang, W., Ou, CQ., Jian-Xing, H., … Zhou, N.S. (2020). Clinical characteristics of coronavirus disease 2019 in China. New England Journal of Medicine, 382, 1708–1720.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hawryluck, L., Gold, W.L., Robinson, S., Pogorski, S., Galea, S., & Styra, R. (2004). SARS control and psychological effects of quarantine, Toronto, Canada. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 10(7), 1206–1212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helmich, R.C., & Bloem, B.R. (2020). the impact of the covid-19 pandemic on parkinson’s disease: hidden sorrows and emerging opportunities. Journal of Parkinson’s Disease, 10(2), 351–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Helms, J., Kremer, S., Merdji, H., Clere-Jehl, R., Collange, O., Coulay, C., … Meziani, F. (2020). Neurologic features in severe SARS-CoV-2 Infection. The New England Journal of Medicine, 382, 2268–2270. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc2008597 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hernández-Fernández, F., Valencia, H.S., Barbella-Aponte, R.A., Collado-Jimenez, R., Ayo-Martin, O., Barrena, C., … Segura, T. (2020) Cerebrovascular disease in patients with COVID-19: Neuroimaging, histological and clinical description. Brain, 143(10), 3089–3103. doi: 10.1093/brain/awaa239 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hess, D.C., Eldahshan, W., & Rutkowski, E. (2020). COVID-19-related stroke. Translational Stroke Research, 11, 322–325. doi: 10.1007/s12975-020-00818-9 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoffmann, M., Kleine-Weber, H., Schroeder, S., Kruger, N., Herrler, T., Erichson, S., … Pöhlmann, S. (2020). SARS-CoV-2 cell entry depends on ACE-2 and TMPRSS2 and is blocked by a clinically proven protease inhibitor. Cell, 181(2), 271–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Honarmand, K., Lalli, R.S., Priestap, F., Chen, J.L., McIntyre, C.W., Owen, A.M., & Slessarev, M. (2020). Natural history of cognitive impairment in critical illness survivors. A systematic review. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 202(2), 193–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hopkins, R.O., Gale, S.D., & Weaver, L.K. (2006). Brain atrophy and cognitive impairment in survivors of acute respiratory distress syndrome. Brain Injury, 20, 263–271.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hopkins, R.O., Weaver, L.K., Collingridge, D., Parkinson, R.B., Chan, K.J., & Orme, J.F. Jr. (2005). Two-year cognitive, emotional, and quality-of-life outcomes in acute respiratory distress syndrome. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 171(4), 340–347.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huang, C., Wang, Y., Li, X., Ren, L., Zhao, J., Hu, Y., … Cao, B. (2020). Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China. The Lancet, 395, 497–506.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iacobucci, G. (2020). Covid-19: PHE review has failed ethnic minorities, leaders tell BMJ. BMJ, 369, m2264. doi: 10.1136/bmj.m2264 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iwashyna, T.J., Ely, E. W., Smith, D.M., & Langa, K.M. (2010). Long-term cognitive impairment and functional disability among survivors of severe sepsis. JAMA, 304(16), 1787–1794.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackson, J.C., Hopkins, R.O., Miller, R.R., Gordon, S.M., Wheeler, A.P., & Ely, E.W. (2009). Acute respiratory distress syndrome, sepsis, and cognitive decline: A review and case study. Southern Medical Journal, 102(11), 1150–1157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaunmuktane, Z., Mahadeva, U., Green, A., Sekhawat, V., Barrett, N.A., Childs, L., … Brandner, S. (2020). Microvascular injury and hypoxic damage: Emerging neuropathological signatures in COVID-19. Acta Neuropathologica, 140(3), 397–400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joob, B., & Wiwanitkit, V. (2020). Medical personnel, COVID-19 and emotional impact. Psychiatry Research, 288, 112952.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kotfis, K., Roberson, S.W., Wilson, J.E., Dabrowski, W., Pun, B T., & Ely, E.W. (2020). COVID-19: ICU delirium management during SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Critical Care, 24(1), 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lahiri, D., & Ardila, A. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic: A neurological perspective. Cureus, 12(4), e7889. doi: 10.7759/cureus.7889 Google ScholarPubMed
Lamar, C.D., Hurley, R.A., & Taber, K.H. (2011). Sepsis-associated encephalopathy: Review of the neuropsychiatric manifestations and cognitive outcome. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 23(3), 237–241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lau-Ng, R., Caruso, L.B., & Perls, T.T. (2020). COVID-19 deaths in long term care facilities - a critical piece of the pandemic puzzle. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 68(9), 1895–1898. doi: 10.1111/jgs.16669 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazosky, A., Young, G.B., Zirul, S., & Phillips, R. (2010). Quality of life after septic illness. Journal of Critical Care, 25(3), 406–412. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2009.10.001 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, R., Pei, S., Chen, B., Song, C., Zhang, T., Yang, W., & Shaman, J. (2020). Substantial undocumented infection facilitates the rapid dissemination of novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV2). Science, 386(6490), 489–493.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Y.C., Bai, W.Z., & Hashikawa, T. (2020). The neuroinvasive potential of SARS-CoV2 may play a role in the respiratory failure of COVID-19 patients. Journal of Medical Virology, 92(6), 552–555. doi: 10.1002/jmv.25728 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lima, C., Carvalho, P., Lima, I., Nunes, J., Saraiva, J.S., de Souza, R.I., … Neto, M. (2020). The emotional impact of Coronavirus 2019-nCoV (new Coronavirus disease). Psychiatry Research, 287, 112915. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112915 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lu, L., Xiong, W., Liu, D., Liu, J., Yang, D., Li, N., … Zhou, D. (2020). New-onset acute symptomatic seizure and risk factors in coronavirus disease 2019: A retrospective multicenter study. Epilepsia, 61(6), e49–e53. doi: 10.1111/epi.16524 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Magrone, T., Magrone, M., & Jirillo, E. (2020). Focus on Receptors for Coronaviruses with Special Reference to Angiotensin- Converting Enzyme 2 as a Potential Drug Target - A Perspective. Endocrine, Metabolic, and Immune Disorders: Drug Targets, 20(6), 807–811. doi: 10.2174/1871530320666200427112902 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mao, L., Jin, H., Wang, M., Hu, Y., Chen, S., He, Q., … Hu, B. (2020). Neurologic manifestations of hospitalized patients with coronavirus disease 2019 in Wuhan, China. JAMA Neurology, 77(6), 683–690. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.1127 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maunder, R., Hunter, J., Vincent, L., Bennett, J., Peladeau, N., Leszcz, M., … Mazzulli, T. (2003). The immediate psychological and occupational impact of the 2003 SARS outbreak in a teaching hospital. Canadian Medical Association journal, 168(10), 1245–1251.Google ScholarPubMed
Mehta, P., McAuley, D.F., Brown, M., Sanchez, E., Tattersall, R.S., Manson, J.J., & HLH Across Speciality Collaboration, UK. (2020). COVID-19: consider cytokine storm syndromes and immunosuppression. Lancet (London, England), 395(10229), 1033–1034. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30628-0 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mikkelsen, M.E., Christie, J.D., Lanken, P.N., Biester, R.C., Thompson, B.T., Bellamy, S.L., … Angus, D.C. (2012). The adult respiratory distress syndrome cognitive outcomes study: Long-term neuropsychological function in survivors of acute lung injury. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 185(12), 1307–1315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morassi, M., Bagatto, D., Cobelli, M., D’Agostini, S., Gigli, G. L., Bnà, C., & Vogrig, A. (2020). Stroke in patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection: case series. Journal of Neurology, 267(8), 2185–2192. doi: 10.1007/s00415-020-09885-2 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moriguchi, T., Harii, N., Goto, J., Harada, D., Sugawara, H., Takamino, J., … Shimada, S. (2020). A first case of meningitis/encephalitis associated with SARS-Coronavirus-2. International Journal of Infectious Diseases: IJID: Official Publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases, 94, 55–58. doi: 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.03.062 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrell, M.J., McRobbie, D.W., Quest, R.A., Cummin, A.R., Ghiassi, R., & Corfield, D.R. (2003). Changes in brain morphology associated with obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Medicine, 4(5), 451–454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, S.B., Schwartz, N.G., Patel, P., Abbo, L., Beauchamps, L., Balan, S., … Godfred-Cato, S. (2020). Case series of multisystem inflammatory syndrome in adults associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection — United Kingdom and United States, March–August 2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(40), 1450–1456. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6940e1 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murthy, S., Gomersall, C.D., & Fowler, R.A. (2020). Care for critically ill patients with COVID-19. JAMA, 323(15), 1499–1500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Natoli, S., Oliveira, V., Calabresi, P., Maia, L.F., & Pisani, A. (2020). Does SARS-Cov-2 invade the brain? Translational lessons from animal models. European Journal of Neurology, 27(9), 1764–1773. doi: 10.1111/ene.14277 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Norman, R.E., Stall, N.M., & Sinha, S.K. (2020). Typically atypical: COVID-19 presenting as a fall in an older adult. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 68(7), E36–E37. doi: 10.1111/jgs.16526 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O’Hanlon, S., & Inouye, S.K. (2020). Delirium: a missing piece in the COVID-19 pandemic puzzle. Age and Ageing, 49(4), 497–498. doi: 10.1093/ageing/afaa094 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paraskevis, D., Kostaki, E.G., Magiorkinis, G., Panayiotakopoulos, G., Sourvinos, G., & Tsiodras, S. (2020). Full-genome evolutionary analysis of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) rejects the hypothesis of emergence as a result of a recent recombination event. Infection, Genetics, and Evolution, 79, 104212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parkin, A.J., Miller, J., & Vincent, R. (1987). Multiple neuropsychological deficits due to anoxic encephalopathy: A case study. Cortex. 23(4), 655–665.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Phua, J., Badia, J.R., Adhikari, N.K., Friedrich, J.O., Fowler, R.A., Singh, J.M., … Gattas, D.J. (2009). Has mortality from acute respiratory distress syndrome decreased over time? A systematic review. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 179(3), 220–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pierrakos, C., Karanikolas, M., Scolletta, S., Karamouzos, V., & Velissaris, D. (2012). Acute respiratory distress syndrome: Pathophysiology and therapeutic options. Journal of Clinical Medicine Research, 4(1), 7.Google ScholarPubMed
Poston, B. (2020). Younger blacks and Latinos are dying of COVID-19 at higher rates in California. Los Angeles Times. –https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2020–04-25/coronavirus-takes-a-larger-toll-on-younger-african-americans-and-latinos-in-california Google Scholar
Poyiadji, N., Shahin, G., Noujaim, D., Stone, M., Patel, S., & Griffith, B. (2020). COVID-19-associated acute hemorrhagic necrotizing encephalopathy: Imaging Features. Radiology, 296(2), E119–E120. doi: 10.1148/radiol.2020201187 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Qiu, J., Shen, B., Zhao, M., Wang, Z., Xie, B., & Xu, Y. (2020). A nationwide survey of psychological distress among Chinese people in the COVID-19 epidemic: implications and policy recommendations. General Psychiatry, 33(2), e100213. doi: 10.1136/gpsych-2020-100213 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raoult, D., Zumla, A., Locatelli, F., Ippolito, G., & Kroemer, G. (2020). Coronavirus infections: Epidemiological, clinical and immunological features and hypotheses. Cell Stress, 4(4), 66–75. doi: 10.15698/cst2020.04.216 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rimmer, A. (2020). COVID-19: Disproportionate impact on ethnic minority healthcare workers will be explored by government. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 369, m1562. doi: 10.1136/bmj.m1562 Google Scholar
Riordan, P., Stika, M., Goldberg, J. & Drzewiecki, M. (2020) COVID-19 and clinical neuropsychology: A review of neuropsychological literature on acute and chronic pulmonary disease, The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 34, 1480–1497. doi: 10.1080/13854046.2020.1810325 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, C.P., & Busl, K.M. (2020). Neurologic manifestations of severe respiratory viral contagions. Critical Care Explorations, 2(4), e0107. doi: 10.1097/CCE.0000000000000107 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salahuddin, H., Castonguay, A.C., Zaidi, S.F., Burgess, R., Jadhav, A.P., & Jumaa, M.A. (2020). Interventional stroke care in the era of COVID-19. Frontiers in Neurology, 11, 468. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.00468 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salive, M.E. (2013). Multimorbidity in older adults. Epidemiological Reviews, 35(1), 75–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Semmler, A., Widmann, C.N., Okulla, T., Urbach, H., Kaiser, M., Widman, G., … Heneka, M.T. (2013). Persistent cognitive impairment, hippocampal atrophy and EEG changes in sepsis survivors. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry, 84(1), 62–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharifi-Razavi, A., Karimi, N., & Rouhani, N. (2020). COVID-19 and intracerebral haemorrhage: causative or coincidental? New Microbes New Infections, 35, 100669. doi: 10.1016/j.nmni.2020.100669 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shenkman, E., Hurt, M., Hogan, W., Carrasquillo, O., Smith, S., Brickman, A., & Nelson, D. (2018). OneFlorida clinical research consortium: Linking a clinical and translational science institute with a community-based distributive medical education model. Academic Medicine, 93(3), 451.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Solomon, I.H., Normandin, E., Bhattacharyya, S., Mukerji, S.S., Keller, K., Ali, A.S., … Sabeti, P. (2020). Neuropathological features of COVID-19. The New England Journal of Medicine, 383, 989–992.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stokes, E.K., Zambrano, L.D., Anderson, K.N., Marder, E P., Raz, K.M., El Burai Felix, S., … Fullerton, K.E. (2020). Coronavirus disease 2019 case surveillance - United States, January 22-May 30, 2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69(24), 759–765.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Su, X.W., Palka, S.V., Rao, R.R., Chen, F.S., Brackney, C.R., & Cambi, F. (2020). SARS-CoV-2-associated Guillain-Barre syndrome with Dysautonomia. Muscle & Nerve, 62(2), E48–E49. doi: 10.1002/mus.26988 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suleyman, G., Fadel, R.A., Malette, K.M., Hammond, C., Abdulla, H., Entz, A., … Brar, I. (2020). Clinical characteristics and morbidity associated with coronavirus disease 2019 in a series of patients in metropolitan Detroit. JAMA Network Open, 3(6), e2012270. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.12270 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tay, H.S., & Harwood, R. (2020). Atypical presentation of COVID-19 in a frail older person. Age and Ageing, 49(4), 523–524. doi: 10.1093/ageing/afaa068 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tiwari, A., Berekashvili, K., Vulkanov, V., Agarwal, S., Khaneja, A., Turkel-Parella, D., … Dmytriw, A.A. (2020). Etiologic subtypes of ischemic stroke in SARS-CoV-2 patients in a cohort of New York City hospitals. Frontiers in Neurology, 11(1004). doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.01004 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toraih, E.A., Elshazli, R.M., Hussein, M.H., Elgaml, A., Amin, M.N., El-Mowafy, M., … Fawzy, M.S. (2020). Association of cardiac biomarkers and comorbidities with increased mortality, severity, and cardiac injury in COVID-19 patients: A meta-regression and decision tree analysis. Journal of Medical Virology, 92(11), 2473–2488. doi: 10.1002/jmv.26166 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toscano, G., Palmerini, F., Ravaglia, S., & Cavallini, A. (2020). Guillain–Barré syndrome associated with SARS-CoV-2. The New England Journal of Medicine, 382, 2574–2576. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc2009191 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner, E.B. (1919). Discussion on influenza. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 12, 76–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
US Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2020). Economic news release. Available at: https://www.bls.gov/news.release/flex2.t01.htm. Accessed July 10, 2020.Google Scholar
Van Dorn, A., Cooney, R.E., & Sabin, M.L. (2020). COVID-19 exacerbating inequalities in the US. The Lancet, 395(10232), 1243–1244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verdecchia, P., Cavallini, C., Spanevello, A., Angeli, F. (2020). The pivotal link between ACE-2 deficiency and SARS-Cov-2 infection. European Journal of Internal Medicine, 76, 14–20. doi: 10.1016/j.ejim.2020.04.037 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
von Weyhern, C.H., Kaufmann, I., Neff, F., & Kremer, M. (2020). Early evidence of pronounced brain involvement in fatal COVID-19 outcomes. Lancet, 395(10241), e109. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31282-4 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wheeler, A.P., & Bernard, G.R. (2007). Acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome: a clinical review. The Lancet, 369, 1553–1564.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Widmann, C.N., & Heneka, M.T. (2014). Long-term cerebral consequences of sepsis. The Lancet Neurology, 13(6), 630–636.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winkler, A.S., Knaus, S., Schmutzhard, E., Leonardi, M., Padovani, A., Abd-Allah, F., … Solomon, T. (2020). A call for a global COVID-19 neuro research coalition. Lancet Neurology, 19(6), 482–484.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wu, A., Peng, Y., Huang, B., Ding, X., Wang, X., Niu, P., … Jiang, T. (2020). Genome composition and divergence of the novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) originating in China. Cell Host & Microbe, 27, 325–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wu, C., Chen, X., Cai, Y., Zhou, X., Xu, S., Huang, H., … Zhang, Y. (2020). Risk factors associated with acute respiratory distress syndrome and death in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 pneumonia in Wuhan, China. JAMA Internal Medicine, 180(7), 934–943. doi: 10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.0994 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wu, Y., Xu, X., Chen, Z., Duan, J., Hashimoto, K., Yang, L., … Yang, C. (2020). Nervous system involvement after infection with COVID-19 and other coronaviruses. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 87, 18–22. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.03.031 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xiang, Y.T., Zhao, Y.J., Liu, Z.H., Li, X.H., Zhao, N., Cheung, T., & Ng, C.H. (2020). The COVID-19 outbreak and psychiatric hospitals in China: managing challenges through mental health service reform. International Journal of Biological Sciences, 16(10), 1741–1744.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Xiao, H., Zhang, Y., Kong, D., Li, S., & Yang, N. (2020). The effects of social support on sleep quality of medical staff treating patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in January and February 2020 in China. Medical Science Monitor: International Medical Journal of Experimental and Clinical Research, 26, e923549. doi: 10.12659/MSM.923549 Google ScholarPubMed
Yancy, C.W. (2020). COVID-19 and African Americans. JAMA, 323(19), 1891–1892.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, Y., & Ma, Z.F. (2020). Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health and quality of life among local residents in Liaoning Province, China: A cross-sectional study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(7), 2381. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17072381 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhao, Y., Zhao, Z., Wang, Y., Zhou, Y., Ma, Y., & Zuo, W. (2020). Single-cell RNA expression profiling of ACE2, the receptor of SARS-COV-2. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 202(5), 756–759. doi: 10.1164/rccm.2020010179LE CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhou, F., Yu, T., Du, R., Fan, G., Liu, Y., Liu, Z., … Guan, L. (2020). Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: A retrospective cohort study. The Lancet, 395, 1054–1062.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed