Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T09:45:34.327Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Learning and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorders as Risk Factors for Prolonged Concussion Recovery in Children and Adolescents

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 March 2021

Alexia K. Martin ,
Ashley J. Petersen ,
Heather W. Sesma ,
Mary B. Koolmo ,
Katherine M. Ingram ,
Katie B. Slifko ,
Victoria N. Nguyen ,
Robert C. Doss  and
Amy M. Linabery Open the ORCID record for Amy M. Linabery [Opens in a new window]
Alexia K. Martin
Affiliation:
Children’s Minnesota Neuroscience Institute, 2525 Chicago Ave S, Minneapolis, MN55404, USA University of Minnesota School of Public Health, 420 Delaware St SE, Minneapolis, MN55455, USA
Ashley J. Petersen
Affiliation:
University of Minnesota School of Public Health, 420 Delaware St SE, Minneapolis, MN55455, USA
Heather W. Sesma
Affiliation:
Children’s Minnesota Neuroscience Institute, 2525 Chicago Ave S, Minneapolis, MN55404, USA
Mary B. Koolmo
Affiliation:
Children’s Minnesota Neuroscience Institute, 2525 Chicago Ave S, Minneapolis, MN55404, USA
Katherine M. Ingram
Affiliation:
Children’s Minnesota Neuroscience Institute, 2525 Chicago Ave S, Minneapolis, MN55404, USA
Katie B. Slifko
Affiliation:
Children’s Minnesota Neuroscience Institute, 2525 Chicago Ave S, Minneapolis, MN55404, USA
Victoria N. Nguyen
Affiliation:
Children’s Minnesota Neuroscience Institute, 2525 Chicago Ave S, Minneapolis, MN55404, USA
Robert C. Doss
Affiliation:
Children’s Minnesota Neuroscience Institute, 2525 Chicago Ave S, Minneapolis, MN55404, USA
Amy M. Linabery*
Affiliation:
Children’s Minnesota Neuroscience Institute, 2525 Chicago Ave S, Minneapolis, MN55404, USA University of Minnesota School of Public Health, 420 Delaware St SE, Minneapolis, MN55455, USA
*
Correspondence and reprint requests to: Amy M. Linabery, Ph.D., Children’s Minnesota Neuroscience Institute, 2525 Chicago Avenue South, MS 40-460, Minneapolis, MN55404, USA. E-mail: amy.linabery@childrensmn.org
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objective:

Examine pre-existing learning disorders (LD) and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorders (ADHD) as risk factors for prolonged recovery and increased symptomology following pediatric mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI).

Methods:

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of children/adolescents (5-17 years) with mTBI who presented to a Children’s Minnesota Concussion Clinic between April 2018 and March 2019. Differences across strata of pre-existing conditions (present vs. absent) in time to recovery measures were estimated via Kaplan–Meier and Cox proportional hazards analyses and differences in symptom trajectories were examined via linear mixed-effects regression models. Regression models were adjusted for age, sex and other confounders.

Results:

In our cohort of 680 mTBI patients, those with LD (n = 70) or ADHD (n = 107) experienced significantly longer median durations of symptoms (58 and 68 days, respectively) than those without (43 days). Accordingly, LD was significantly associated with delayed symptom recovery (adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) = 1.63, 95% CI: 1.16–2.29), return to school (1.47, 1.08–2.00), and return to physical activity (1.50, 1.10–2.04). Likewise, ADHD was associated with delayed recovery (1.69, 1.28–2.23), return to school (1.52, 1.17–1.97) and physical activity (1.55, 1.19–2.01). Further, patients with LD or ADHD reported, on average, significantly more concussion symptoms and higher vision symptom scores throughout recovery versus those without. There was no evidence that concussion or vision symptom recovery trajectories varied over time between those with/without LD or ADHD (joint P-interactions > 0.05).

Conclusion:

Pre-existing LD and ADHD are risk factors for prolonged and more symptomatic mTBI recovery in youth. These results can inform clinical concussion management and recovery expectations.

Keywords

AdolescentAttention deficit disorder with hyperactivityBrain concussionChildLearning disabilities
Type
Regular Research
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 28 , Issue 2 , February 2022 , pp. 109 - 122
Copyright
Copyright © INS. Published by Cambridge University Press, 2021

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Aggarwal, S.S., Ott, S.D., Padhye, N.S., Meininger, J.C., & Armstrong, T.S. (2019). Clinical and demographic predictors of concussion resolution in adolescents: A retrospective study. Applied Neuropsychology Child, 8(1), 50–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aggarwal, S.S., Ott, S.D., Padhye, N.S., & Schulz, P.E. (2020). Sex, race, ADHD, and prior concussions as predictors of concussion recovery in adolescents. Brain Injury, 34(6), 809–817.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Altarac, M., & Saroha, E. (2007). Lifetime prevalence of learning disability among US children. Pediatrics, 119(Suppl 1), S77–S83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anand, D., Colpo, G.D., Zeni, G., Zeni, C.P., & Teixeira, A.L. (2017). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and inflammation: What does current knowledge tell us? A systematic review. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 8, 228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, J.G., Leddy, J.J., Darling, S.R., Rieger, B.P., Mashtare, T.L., Sharma, T., & Willer, B.S. (2015). Factors associated with problems for adolescents returning to the classroom after sport-related concussion. Clinical Pediatrics (Philadelphia), 54(10), 961–968.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barlow, K.M. (2016). Postconcussion syndrome: A review. The Journal of Child Neurology, 31(1), 57–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borsting, E.J., Rouse, M.W., Mitchell, G.L., Scheiman, M., Cotter, S.A., Cooper, J., …London, R. (2003). Validity and reliability of the revised convergence insufficiency symptom survey in children aged 9 to 18 years. Optometry and Vision Science, 80(12), 832–838.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brehaut, J.C., Miller, A., Raina, P., & McGrail, K.M. (2003). Childhood behavior disorders and injuries among children and youth: a population-based study. Pediatrics, 111(2), 262–269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Broglio, S.P., Collins, M.W., Williams, R.M., Mucha, A., & Kontos, A.P. (2015). Current and emerging rehabilitation for concussion: a review of the evidence. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 34(2), 213–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broshek, D.K., Kaushik, T., Freeman, J.R., Erlanger, D., Webbe, F., & Barth, J.T. (2005). Sex differences in outcome following sports-related concussion. Journal of Neurosurgery, 102(5), 856–863.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryan, M.A., Rowhani-Rahbar, A., Comstock, R.D., Rivara, F., & Seattle Sports Concussion Research, C. (2016). Sports- and recreation-related concussions in US youth. Pediatrics, 138(1), e20154635.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Catroppa, C., Anderson, V.A., Morse, S.A., Haritou, F., & Rosenfeld, J.V. (2008). Outcome and predictors of functional recovery 5 years following pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI). Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 33(7), 707–718.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chien, Y.J., Chien, Y.C., Liu, C.T., Wu, H.C., Chang, C.Y., & Wu, M.Y. (2019). Effects of methylphenidate on cognitive function in adults with traumatic brain injury: A meta-analysis. Brain Sciences, 9(11), brainsci9110291. doi: 10.3390/brainsci9110291 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, M.W., Lovell, M.R., & McKeag, D.B. (1999). Current issues in managing sports-related concussion. JAMA, 282(24), 2283–2285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, N.E., Iaccarino, M.A., Karr, J.E., & Iverson, G.L. (2020a). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and outcome after concussion: A systematic review. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics. doi: 10.1097/DBP.0000000000000808 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, N.E., Sapigao, R.G., Silverberg, N.D., Maxwell, B.A., Zafonte, R., Berkner, P.D., & Iverson, G.L. (2020b). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder mimics the post-concussion syndrome in adolescents. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 8, 2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
D’Lauro, C., Johnson, B.R., McGinty, G., Allred, C.D., Campbell, D.E., & Jackson, J.C. (2018). Reconsidering return-to-play times: A broader perspective on concussion recovery. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine, 6(3), 2325967118760854.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donfrancesco, R., Nativio, P., Di Benedetto, A., Villa, M.P., Andriola, E., Melegari, M.G., … Di Trani, M. (2020). Anti-Yo antibodies in children with ADHD: First results about serum cytokines. Journal of Attention Disorders, 24(11), 1497–1502.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donzis, E.J., & Tronson, N.C. (2014). Modulation of learning and memory by cytokines: Signaling mechanisms and long term consequences. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 115, 68–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunn, G.A., Nigg, J.T., & Sullivan, E.L. (2019). Neuroinflammation as a risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior., 182, 22–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, M.A., Andrea, J., Meehan, W., & Mannix, R. (2013). Time interval between concussions and symptom duration. Pediatrics, 132(1), 8–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elia, J., Ungal, G., Kao, C., Ambrosini, A., De Jesus-Rosario, N., Larsen, L., … Hakonarson, H. (2018). Fasoracetam in adolescents with ADHD and glutamatergic gene network variants disrupting mGluR neurotransmitter signaling. Nature Communications, 9(1), 4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, M.J., Cordingley, D.M., Vis, S., Reimer, K.M., Leiter, J., & Russell, K. (2017). Clinical predictors of vestibulo-ocular dysfunction in pediatric sports-related concussion. Journal of Neurosurgery Pediatrics, 19(1), 38–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fehr, S.D., Nelson, L.D., Scharer, K.R., Traudt, E.A., Veenstra, J.M., Tarima, S.S., … Walter, K.D. (2019). Risk factors for prolonged symptoms of mild traumatic brain injury: A pediatric sports concussion clinic cohort. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 29(1), 11–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gioia, G., & Collins, M. (2006). Acute Concussion Evaluation (ACE): Physician/Clinician Office Version. Retrieved December 31, 2020, from https://www.cdc.gov/headsup/pdfs/providers/ace-a.pdf Google Scholar
Giza, C.C., & Hovda, D.A. (2014). The new neurometabolic cascade of concussion. Neurosurgery, 75(Suppl 4), S24–S33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grayson, D.A. (1987). Confounding confounding. American Journal of Epidemiology, 126(3), 546–553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grubenhoff, J.A., Currie, D., Comstock, R.D., Juarez-Colunga, E., Bajaj, L., & Kirkwood, M.W. (2016). Psychological factors associated with delayed symptom resolution in children with concussion. Journal of Pediatrics, 174, 27–32 e21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guerriero, R.M., Giza, C.C., & Rotenberg, A. (2015). Glutamate and GABA imbalance following traumatic brain injury. Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 15(5), 27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guerriero, R.M., Kuemmerle, K., Pepin, M.J., Taylor, A.M., Wolff, R., & Meehan, W.P., 3rd. (2018). The association between premorbid conditions in school-aged children with prolonged concussion recovery. The Journal of Child Neurology, 33(2), 168–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haarbauer-Krupa, J., Arbogast, K.B., Metzger, K.B., Greenspan, A.I., Kessler, R., Curry, A.E., … Master, C.L. (2018). Variations in mechanisms of injury for children with concussion. Journal of Pediatrics, 197, 241–248 e241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, P.A., Taylor, R., Thielke, R., Payne, J., Gonzalez, N., & Conde, J.G. (2009). Research electronic data capture (REDCap)—a metadata-driven methodology and workflow process for providing translational research informatics support. The Journal of Biomedical Informatics, 42(2), 377–381.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henry, L.C., Elbin, R.J., Collins, M.W., Marchetti, G., & Kontos, A.P. (2016). Examining recovery trajectories after sport-related concussion with a multimodal clinical assessment approach. Neurosurgery, 78(2), 232–241.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howell, D.R., Potter, M.N., Kirkwood, M.W., Wilson, P.E., Provance, A.J., & Wilson, J.C. (2019). Clinical predictors of symptom resolution for children and adolescents with sport-related concussion. Journal of Neurosurgery Pediatrics, 24(1), 54–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huang, C.H., Huang, C.C., Sun, C.K., Lin, G.H., & Hou, W.H. (2016). Methylphenidate on cognitive improvement in patients with traumatic brain injury: A meta-analysis. Current Neuropharmacology, 14(3), 272–281.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huang, X., Wang, M., Zhang, Q., Chen, X., & Wu, J. (2019). The role of glutamate receptors in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: From physiology to disease. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics: The Official Publication of the International Society of Psychiatric Genetics, 180(4), 272–286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hutchinson, M., Comper, P., Csenge, B., & Richards, D. (2014). Psychosocial and psychological factors related to delayed recovery from concussion in high school students. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48, 610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Institute of Medicine (IOM), & National Research Council (NRC). (2014). Sports-Related Concussions in Youth: Improving the Science, Changing the Culture. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar
Iverson, G.L., Silverberg, N.D., Mannix, R., Maxwell, B.A., Atkins, J.E., Zafonte, R., & Berkner, P.D. (2015). Factors associated with concussion-like symptom reporting in high school athletes. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(12), 1132–1140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kang, J.H., Lin, H.C., & Chung, S.D. (2013). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder increased the risk of injury: a population-based follow-up study. Acta Paediatrica, 102(6), 640–643.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, N.K., & Bush, S.S. (2020). Concussion in pediatric neuropsychology. Journal of Pediatric Neuropsychology, 6(1), 14–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kontos, A.P., Elbin, R.J., Sufrinko, A., Marchetti, G., Holland, C.L., & Collins, M.W. (2019). Recovery following sport-related concussion: Integrating pre- and postinjury factors into multidisciplinary care. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 34(6), 394–401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kumar, A. (2018). Editorial: Neuroinflammation and cognition. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 10, 413.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lau, B.C., Collins, M.W., & Lovell, M.R. (2012). Cutoff scores in neurocognitive testing and symptom clusters that predict protracted recovery from concussions in high school athletes. Neurosurgery, 70(2), 371–379; discussion 379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ledoux, A.A., Tang, K., Yeates, K.O., Pusic, M.V., Boutis, K., Craig, W.R., …, Pediatric Emergency Research Canada Concussion, T. (2019). Natural progression of symptom change and recovery from concussion in a pediatric population. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(1), e183820.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, Y., Yin, A., Sun, X., Zhang, M., Zhang, J., Wang, P., … Xiong, L. (2017). Deficiency of tumor suppressor NDRG2 leads to attention deficit and hyperactive behavior. The Journal of Clinical Investigation, 127(12), 4270–4284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lovell, M.R. (1996). Evaluation of the professional athlete. On New Developments in Sports-Related Concussion Conference. Pittsburgh, PA.Google Scholar
Lumba-Brown, A., Ghajar, J., Cornwell, J., Bloom, O.J., Chesnutt, J., Clugston, J.R., … Gioia, G. (2019). Representation of concussion subtypes in common postconcussion symptom-rating scales. Concussion, 4(3), CNC65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lumba-Brown, A., Yeates, K.O., Sarmiento, K., Breiding, M.J., Haegerich, T.M., Gioia, G.A., … Timmons, S.D. (2018a). Centers for disease control and prevention guideline on the diagnosis and management of mild traumatic brain injury among children. JAMA Pediatrics, 172(11), e182853.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lumba-Brown, A., Yeates, K.O., Sarmiento, K., Breiding, M.J., Haegerich, T.M., Gioia, G.A., … Timmons, S.D. (2018b). Diagnosis and management of mild traumatic brain injury in children: A systematic review. JAMA Pediatrics, 172(11), e182847.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maltezos, S., Horder, J., Coghlan, S., Skirrow, C., O’Gorman, R., Lavender, T.J., … Murphy, D.G. (2014). Glutamate/glutamine and neuronal integrity in adults with ADHD: A proton MRS study. Translational Psychiatry, 4, e373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, A.K., Petersen, A.J., Sesma, H.W., Koolmo, M.B., Ingram, K.M., Slifko, K.B., … Linabery, A.M. (2020). Concussion symptomology and recovery in children and adolescents with pre-existing anxiety. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 91(10), 1060–1066.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Master, C.L., Scheiman, M., Gallaway, M., Goodman, A., Robinson, R.L., Master, S.R., & Grady, M.F. (2016). Vision diagnoses are common after concussion in adolescents. Clinical pediatrics (Philadelphia), 55(3), 260–267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matthews, M., Nigg, J.T., & Fair, D.A. (2014). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, 16, 235–266.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mautner, K., Sussman, W.I., Axtman, M., Al-Farsi, Y., & Al-Adawi, S. (2015). Relationship of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and postconcussion recovery in youth athletes. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 25(4), 355–360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCauley, S.R., Wilde, E.A., Miller, E.R., Frisby, M.L., Garza, H.M., Varghese, R., … McCarthy, J.J. (2013). Preinjury resilience and mood as predictors of early outcome following mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 30(8), 642–652.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCrory, P., Meeuwisse, W.H., Aubry, M., Cantu, B., Dvorak, J., Echemendia, R.J., … Turner, M. (2013). Consensus statement on concussion in sport: the 4th International Conference on Concussion in Sport held in Zurich, November 2012. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 47(5), 250–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEntee, W.J., & Crook, T.H. (1993). Glutamate: its role in learning, memory, and the aging brain. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 111(4), 391–401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Medin, T., Jensen, V., Skare, O., Storm-Mathisen, J., Hvalby, O., & Bergersen, L.H. (2019). Altered alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor function and expression in hippocampus in a rat model of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Behavioural Brain Research, 360, 209–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mikolajczyk, R., Horn, J., Schmedt, N., Langner, I., Lindemann, C., & Garbe, E. (2015). Injury prevention by medication among children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A case-only study. JAMA Pediatrics, 169(4), 391–395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, E.M., Thomas, T.C., Gerhardt, G.A., & Glaser, P.E.A. (2013). Dopamine and glutamate interactions in ADHD: Implications for the future neuropharmacology of ADHD. In Banerjee, S. (Ed.), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents. London, UK: IntechOpen.Google ScholarPubMed
Miller, J.H., Gill, C., Kuhn, E.N., Rocque, B.G., Menendez, J.Y., O’Neill, J.A., … Johnston, J.M. (2016). Predictors of delayed recovery following pediatric sports-related concussion: A case-control study. Journal of Neurosurgery Pediatrics, 17(4), 491–496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moran, R.N., Wallace, J., Murray, N.G., & Covassin, T. (2019). Effects of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and learning disability on vestibular and ocular baseline concussion assessment in pediatric athletes. Applied Neuropsychology Child, 0, 1–7.Google Scholar
Moretto, E., Murru, L., Martano, G., Sassone, J., & Passafaro, M. (2018). Glutamatergic synapses in neurodevelopmental disorders. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry, 84(Pt B), 328–342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan, C.D., Zuckerman, S.L., Lee, Y.M., King, L., Beaird, S., Sills, A.K., & Solomon, G.S. (2015). Predictors of postconcussion syndrome after sports-related concussion in young athletes: A matched case-control study. Journal of Neurosurgery Pediatrics, 15(6), 589–598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nelson, L.D., Tarima, S., LaRoche, A.A., Hammeke, T.A., Barr, W.B., Guskiewicz, K., … McCrea, M.A. (2016). Preinjury somatization symptoms contribute to clinical recovery after sport-related concussion. Neurology, 86(20), 1856–1863.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neurobehavioral Guidelines Working Group, Warden, D.L., Gordon, B., McAllister, T.W., Silver, J.M., Barth, J.T., Bruns, J., … Zitnay, G. (2006). Guidelines for the pharmacologic treatment of neurobehavioral sequelae of traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 23(10), 1468–1501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nitta, M.E., Savitz, J., Nelson, L.D., Teague, T.K., Hoelzle, J.B., McCrea, M.A., & Meier, T.B. (2019). Acute elevation of serum inflammatory markers predicts symptom recovery after concussion. Neurology, 93(5), e497–e507.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pardini, D, Stump, J., Lovell, M., Collins, M., Moritz, K., Fu, FH. (2004). The post-concussion symptom scale (PCSS): A factor analysis. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 38, 661–662.Google Scholar
Ponsford, J., Cameron, P., Fitzgerald, M., Grant, M., Mikocka-Walus, A., & Schonberger, M. (2012). Predictors of postconcussive symptoms 3 months after mild traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychology, 26(3), 304–313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ponsford, J., Willmott, C., Rothwell, A., Cameron, P., Ayton, G., Nelms, R., … Ng, K.T. (1999). Cognitive and behavioural outcome following mTBI in children. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 14(4), 360–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ponsford, J., Willmott, C., Rothwell, A., Cameron, P., Kelly, A.M., Nelms, R., & Curran, C. (2002). Impact of early intervention on outcome following mild head injury in adults. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 73(3), 330–332.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preece, M.H., & Geffen, G.M. (2007). The contribution of pre-existing depression to the acute cognitive sequelae of mild traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 21(9), 951–961.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rabinowitz, A.R., Li, X., McCauley, S.R., Wilde, E.A., Barnes, A., Hanten, G., … Levin, H.S. (2015). Prevalence and predictors of poor recovery from mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 32(19), 1488–1496.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riedel, G., Platt, B., & Micheau, J. (2003). Glutamate receptor function in learning and memory. Behavioural Brain Research, 140(1–2), 1–47.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Romeu-Mejia, R., Giza, C.C., & Goldman, J.T. (2019). Concussion pathophysiology and injury biomechanics. Current Reviews in Musculoskeletal Medicine, 12(2), 105–116.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rouse, M., Borsting, E., Mitchell, G.L., Cotter, S.A., Kulp, M., Scheiman, M., … Convergence Insufficiency Treatment Trial Investigator, G. (2009). Validity of the convergence insufficiency symptom survey: A confirmatory study. Optometry and Vision Science, 86(4), 357–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Russell, K., Selci, E., Black, B., & Ellis, M.J. (2019). Health-related quality of life following adolescent sports-related concussion or fracture: A prospective cohort study. Journal of Neurosurgery Pediatrics, 23(4), 455–464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sady, M.D., Vaughan, C.G., & Gioia, G.A. (2014). Psychometric characteristics of the postconcussion symptom inventory in children and adolescents. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 29(4), 348–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scheiman, M. (2011). Understanding and managing vision deficits: A guide for occupational therapists (3rd ed.). Thorofare, NJ: SLACK Incorporated.Google Scholar
Scopaz, K.A., & Hatzenbuehler, J.R. (2013). Risk modifiers for concussion and prolonged recovery. Sports Health, 5(6), 537–541.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seiger, A., Goldwater, E., & Deibert, E. (2015). Does mechanism of injury play a role in recovery from concussion? Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 30(3), E52–E56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharp, D.J., & Jenkins, P.O. (2015). Concussion is confusing us all. Practical Neurology, 15(3), 172–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith-Spark, J.H., Henry, L.A., Messer, D.J., Edvardsdottir, E., & Ziecik, A.P. (2016). Executive functions in adults with developmental dyslexia. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 53–54, 323–341.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swanson, J.M., Volkow, N.D., Newcorn, J., Casey, B.J., Moyzis, R., Grandy, D.K., & Posner, M.I. (2005). Dopamine and glutamate in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In Schmidt, W. & Reith, M. (Eds.), Dopamine and glutamate in psychiatric disorders, (pp. 293–315). Totowa, NJ: Humana Press Inc.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tai, Y.M., Gau, S.S., & Gau, C.S. (2013). Injury-proneness of youth with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A national clinical data analysis in Taiwan. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34(3), 1100–1108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tomczyk, C.P., Mormile, M., Wittenberg, M.S., Langdon, J.L., & Hunt, T.N. (2018). An examination of adolescent athletes and nonathletes on Baseline neuropsychological test scores. Journal of Athletic Training, 53(4), 404–409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
VanderWeele, T.J. (2019). Principles of confounder selection. European Journal of Epidemiology, 34(3), 211–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Visser, S.N., Danielson, M.L., Bitsko, R.H., Holbrook, J.R., Kogan, M.D., Ghandour, R.M., … & Blumberg, S.J. (2014). Trends in the parent-report of health care provider-diagnosed and medicated attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: United States, 2003–2011. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 53(1), 34–46 e32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voss, J.D., Connolly, J., Schwab, K.A., & Scher, A.I. (2015). Update on the epidemiology of concussion/mild traumatic brain injury. Current Pain and Headache Reports, 19(7), 32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wojcik, S.M. (2014). Predicting mild traumatic brain injury patients at risk of persistent symptoms in the emergency department. Brain Injury, 28(4), 422–430.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yeates, K.O., Taylor, H.G., Rusin, J., Bangert, B., Dietrich, A., Nuss, K., … Jones, B.L. (2009). Longitudinal trajectories of postconcussive symptoms in children with mild traumatic brain injuries and their relationship to acute clinical status. Pediatrics, 123(3), 735–743.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zemek, R., Barrowman, N., Freedman, S.B., Gravel, J., Gagnon, I., McGahern, C., … & Pediatric Emergency Research Canada Concussion, T. (2016). Clinical risk score for persistent postconcussion symptoms among children with acute concussion in the ED. JAMA, 315(10), 1014–1025.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zheng, J., & Chen, Y.H. (2018). [Research advances in pathogenesis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]. Chinese Journal of Contemporary Pediatrics, 20(9), 775–780.Google ScholarPubMed
Zuckerman, S.L., Lee, Y.M., Odom, M.J., Solomon, G.S., & Sills, A.K. (2013). Baseline neurocognitive scores in athletes with attention deficit-spectrum disorders and/or learning disability. Journal of Neurosurgery Pediatrics, 12(2), 103–109.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Martin et al. supplementary material

Martin et al. supplementary material

Download Martin et al. supplementary material(File)
File 52.7 KB