Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T19:07:02.292Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Mood and Personality Characteristics are Associated with Metamemory Knowledge Accuracy in a Community-Based Cohort of Older Adults

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 February 2018

Leigh E. Colvin ,
Matteo Malgaroli ,
Silvia Chapman ,
Anna MacKay-Brandt  and
Stephanie Cosentino
Leigh E. Colvin*
Affiliation:
Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, New York Cognitive Neuroscience Division, Taub Institute, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York
Matteo Malgaroli
Affiliation:
Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, New York
Silvia Chapman
Affiliation:
Cognitive Neuroscience Division, Taub Institute, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York
Anna MacKay-Brandt
Affiliation:
Cognitive Neuroscience Division, Taub Institute, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York Nathan Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Orangeburg, New York
Stephanie Cosentino
Affiliation:
Cognitive Neuroscience Division, Taub Institute, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York
*
Correspondence and reprint requests to: Leigh E. Colvin, Doctoral Candidate, Department of Clinical Psychology, Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 West 120th St., New York, NY 10027. E-mail: lec2151@tc.columbia.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Objectives: Emerging work reveals the neuroanatomic changes that compromise metacognition; however, little is known about the impact of premorbid factors. Research suggests that psychological variables influence the perception of cognition, but whether they influence the accuracy of those perceptions (i.e., metacognition) has not been directly examined. Participants and Methods: Using Latent Class Analysis (LCA), we tested for discrete personality (NEOFFI) and mood (STAI, BDI-II, and GDS) classes among a community-based cohort of 151 older adults, enrolled in the NKI-Rockland study. Metamemory was calculated by comparing subjective memory ratings (modified Cognitive Failures Questionnaire) to objective memory (Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test) to determine the degree to which individuals were overconfident, underconfident, or accurate in their self-assessment. A generalized linear model was used to examine whether metamemory differed across the emergent classes. A one sample t test was used to determine whether the metamemory scores of the emergent classes were statistically significantly different from zero, that is, over or under confident. Results: Two discrete classes emerged in the LCA: Class 1 was characterized predominantly by high extraversion and conscientiousness and low neuroticism and anxiety; Class 2 was characterized predominantly by low extraversion and conscientiousness and high neuroticism and anxiety. Metamemory differed significantly as a function of Class Membership (F(4,151)=5.42; p<.001), with Class 1 demonstrating accurate metamemory (M=0.21; SD=1.31) and Class 2 demonstrating under-confidence (M=−0.59; SD=1.39) in their memory. Conclusions: The significant association between psychological factors and metamemory knowledge accuracy suggests that such characteristics may be important to consider in the conceptualization, assessment, and treatment of metacognitive disturbances. (JINS, 2018, 24, 498–510)

Keywords

MetacognitionPersonalityAnxietyMoodHealthy agingDementia
Type
Research Articles
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 24 , Issue 5 , May 2018 , pp. 498 - 510
Copyright
Copyright © The International Neuropsychological Society 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Amirkhan, J.H., Risinger, R.T., & Swickert, R.J. (1995). Extraversion: A “hidden” personality factor in coping? Journal of Personality, 63(2), 189–212. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1995.tb00807 Google Scholar
Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2012). Using Mplus TECH11 and TECH14 to test the number of latent classes. Mplus Web Notes, 14, 22.Google Scholar
Bacon, E., Huet, N., & Danion, J. (2011). Metamemory knowledge and beliefs in patients with schizophrenia and how these relate to objective cognitive abilities. Consciousness and Cognition, 20(4), 1315–1326.Google Scholar
Balash, Y., Mordechovich, M., Shabtai, H., Giladi, N., Gurevich, T., & Korczyn, A.D. (2013). Subjective memory complaints in elders: Depression, anxiety, or cognitive decline? Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 127(5), 344–350. doi: 10.1111/ane.12038 Google Scholar
Barrett, A.M., Eslinger, P.J., Ballentine, N.H., & Heilman, K.M. (2005). Unawareness of cognitive deficit (cognitive anosognosia) in probable AD and control subjects. Neurology, 64, 693–699.Google Scholar
Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A., & Brown, G.K. (1996). Manual for Beck Depression Inventory-II. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Bigler, E.D., Rosa, L., Schultz, F., Hall, S., & Harris, J. (1989). Rey-Auditory Verbal Learning and Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Design performance in Alzheimer’s disease and closed head injury. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 45(2), 277–280. doi: 10.1002/1097-4679 Google Scholar
Binder, L., Storzbach, D., Rohlman, D., Campbell, K.A., & Anger, W. (1999). Subjective cognitive complaints, affective distress, and objective cognitive performance in Persian Gulf War Veterans. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 14(6), 531–536. doi: 10.1016/s0887-6177(98)00047-x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bishop, S., & Forster, S. (2012). Trait anxiety, neuroticism, and the brain basis of vulnerability to affective disorder. The Cambridge Handbook of Human Affective Neuroscience, 553–574. doi: 10.1017/cbo9780511843716.031 Google Scholar
Boyle, G.J., Saklofske, D.H., & Matthews, G. (2015). Chapter 1 - Criteria for selection and evaluation of scales and measures. Measures of personality and social psychological constructs (pp. 3–15). San Diego: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Broadbent, D.E., Cooper, P.F., FitzGerald, P., & Parkes, K.R. (1982). The Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ) and its correlates. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21, 1–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buckley, R., Saling, M., Ames, D., Rowe, C., Lautenschlager, N., Macaulay, S., & Ellis, K. (2013). Factors affecting subjective memory complaints in the AIBL aging study: Biomarkers, memory, affect, and age. International Psychogeriatrics, 25(8), 1307–1315. doi: 10.1017/S1041610213000665 Google Scholar
Buckley, R.F., Villemagne, V.L., Masters, C.L., Ellis, K.A., Rowe, C.C., Johnson, K.,Sperling, R., & Amariglio, R. (2016). A conceptualization of the utility of subjective cognitive decline in clinical trials of preclinical Alzheimer’s Disease. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 60(3), 354–361. doi: 10.1007/s12031-016-0810-z Google Scholar
Butters, N., Wolfe, J., Martone, M., Granholm, E., & Cermak, L.S. (1985). Memory disorders associated with Huntington’s disease: Verbal recall, verbal recognition and procedural memory. Neuropsychologia, 23(6), 729–743. doi: 10.1016/0028-3932(85)90080-6 Google Scholar
Carter, N.T., Guan, L., Maples, J.L., Williamson, R.L., & Miller, J.D. (2015). The downsides of extreme conscientiousness for psychological well-being: The role of obsessive compulsive tendencies. Journal of Personality, 84(4), 510–522. doi: 10.1111/jopy.12177 Google Scholar
Chaytor, N., & Schmitter-Edgecombe, M. (2003). The ecological validity of neuropsychological tests: A review of the literature on everyday cognitive skills. Neuropsychology Review, 13(4), 181–197. doi: 10.1023/b:nerv.0000009483.91468.fb CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clare, L., Marková, I.S., Verhey, F., & Kenny, G. (2005). Awareness in dementia: A review of assessment methods and measures. Aging & Mental Health, 9, 394–413. doi: 10.1080/13607860500142903 Google Scholar
Clare, L., Nelis, S.M., Martyr, A., Roberts, J., Whitaker, C.J., Marková, I.S., & Morris, R.G. (2011). The influence of psychological, social and contextual factors on the expression and measurement of awareness in early-stage dementia: Testing a biopsychosocial model. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 27(2), 167–177. doi: 10.1002/gps.2705 Google Scholar
Clare, L., Whitaker, C.J., Nelis, S.M., Martyr, A., Marková, I.S., Roth, I., & Morris, R.G. (2011). Multidimensional assessment of awareness in early-stage dementia: A cluster analytic approach. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 31(5), 317–327. doi: 10.1159/000327356 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clare, L., Marková, I.S., Roth, I., & Morris, R.G. (2011). Awareness in Alzheimer’s disease and associated dementias: Theoretical framework and clinical implications. Aging & Mental Health, 15(8), 936–944. doi: 10.1080/13607863.2011.583630 Google Scholar
Clark, L.A., & Watson, D. (1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: Psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100(3), 316–336. doi: 10.1037//0021-843x.100.3.316 Google Scholar
Comijs, H.C., Deeg, D.J.H., Dik, M.G., Twisk, J.W.R., & Jonker, C. (2002). Memory complaints; the association with psycho-affective and health problems and the role of personality characteristics. Journal of Affective Disorders, 72(2), 157–165. doi: 10.1016/S0165-0327(01)00453-0 Google Scholar
Conde-Sala, J.L., Rene-Ramirez, R., Turró-Garriga, O., Gascon-Bayarri, J., Juncadella-Puig, M., Moreno-Cordon, L., & Garre-Olmo, J. (2013). Clinical differences in patients with Alzheimer’s disease according to the presence or absence of anosognosia: Implications for perceived quality of life. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 33(4), 1105–1116. doi: 10.3233/jad-2012-121360 Google Scholar
Cosentino, S., & Stern, Y. (2005). Metacognitive theory and assessment in dementia: Do we recognize our areas of weakness? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 11, 910–919.Google Scholar
Cosentino, S., Metcalfe, J., Butterfield, B., & Stern, Y. (2007). Objective metamemory testing captures awareness of deficit in Alzheimer’s disease. Cortex, 43(7), 1004–1019. doi: 10.1016/s0010-9452(08)70697-x Google Scholar
Cosentino, S., Metcalfe, J., Cary, M.S., Leon, J.D., & Karlawish, J. (2011). Memory awareness influences everyday decision making capacity about medication management in Alzheimer’s disease. International Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 2011, 1–9. doi: 10.4061/2011/483897 Google Scholar
Cosentino, S., Metcalfe, J., Holmes, B., Steffener, J., & Stern, Y. (2011). Finding the self in metacognitive evaluations: Metamemory and agency in nondemented elders. Neuropsychology, 25(5), 602–612. doi: 10.1037/a0023972 Google Scholar
Costa, P.T., & McCrae, R.R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.Google Scholar
Davidoff, G., Roth, E., Thomas, P., Doljanac, R., Dijkers, M., Berent, S., & Yarkony, G. (1990). Depression and neuropsychological test performance in acute spinal cord injury patients: Lack of correlation. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 5(1), 77–88. doi: 10.1093/arclin/5.1.77 Google Scholar
Deneve, K.M., & Cooper, H. (1998). The happy personality: A meta-analysis of 137 personality traits and subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 197–229. doi: 10.1037//0033-2909.124.2.197 Google Scholar
Dixon, R.A., Hultsch, D.F., & Hertzog, C. (1988). The Metamemory in Adulthood (MIA) questionnaire. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 24(4), 671–688.Google Scholar
Duchek, J.M., Hunt, L., Ball, K., Buckles, V., & Morris, J.C. (1997). The role of selective attention in driving and dementia of the Alzheimer type. Alzheimer’s Disease & Associated Disorders, 11, 48–56. doi: 10.1097/00002093-199706001-00011 Google Scholar
Duncan, T.E., Duncan, S.C., & Strycker, L.A. (2006). An introduction to latent variable growth curve modeling: Concepts, issues, and applications (2nd ed). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.Google Scholar
Edmonds, E., Delano-Wood, L., Galasko, D., Salmon, D., & Bondi, M. (2014). Subjective cognitive complaints contribute to misdiagnosis of mild cognitive impairment. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 20(8), 836–847. doi: 10.1017/S135561771400068X Google Scholar
Enhanced Nathan Kline Institute - Rockland Sample. (n.d.). Retrieved June 28, 2016. Retrieved from http://fcon_1000.projects.nitrc.org/indi/enhanced/index.html.Google Scholar
Eysenck, H.J. (1963). Biological basis of personality. Nature, 199(4898), 1031–1034. doi: 10.1038/1991031a0 Google Scholar
Eysenck, H.J. (1967). The biological basis of personality. London: Transaction Publishers.Google Scholar
Eysenck, H.J. (1991). Dimensions of personality: 16, 5 or 3?—Criteria for a taxonomic paradigm. Personality and Individual Differences, 12(8), 773–790. doi: 10.1016/0191-8869(91)90144-Z Google Scholar
First, M.B., Spitzer, R.L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J.B.W. (2002). Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I disorders –Non-patient Edition (SCID-I/NP). New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute.Google Scholar
Flavell, J.H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.906Google Scholar
Fleming, S.M., & Dolan, R.J. (2014). The neural basis of metacognitive ability. The Cognitive Neuroscience of Metacognition, 245–265. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-45190-4_11 Google Scholar
Fleming, S.M., & Frith, C.D. (2014). The cognitive neuroscience of metacognition. Heidelberg: Springer.Google Scholar
Greenwald, A.G. (1980). The totalitarian ego. American Psychologist, 35, 603–618.Google Scholar
Geerlings, M.I., Jonker, C., Bouter, L.M., Adèr, H.J., & Schmand, B. (1999). Association between memory complaints and incident Alzheimer’s disease in elderly people with normal baseline cognition. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(4), 531–537. doi: 10.1176/ajp.156.4.531 Google Scholar
Gergen, K.J. (1984). Theory of the self: Impasse and evolution. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, (Vol. 17, pp. 49–115). New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Google Scholar
Goverover, Y., Genova, H., Griswold, H., Chiaravalloti, N., & DeLuca, J. (2014). Metacognitive knowledge and online awareness in persons with multiple sclerosis. NeuroRehabilitation, 35(2), 315–323. doi: 10.3233/ NRE-141113 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graham, D.P., Kunik, M.E., Doody, R., & Snow, A.L. (2005). Self-reported awareness of performance in dementia. Cognitive Brain Research, 25(1), 144–152. doi: 10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.05.001 Google Scholar
Helmstaedter, C., Hauff, M., & Elger, C.E. (1998). Ecological validity of list-learning tests and self-reported memory in healthy individuals and those with temporal lobe epilepsy. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 20(3), 365–375. doi: 10.1076/jcen.20.3.365.824 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henson, J.M. (2007). Detecting mixtures from structural model differences using latent variable mixture modeling: A comparison of relative model fit statistics. Structural Equation Modeling, 14(2), 202–226. doi: 10.1080/10705510709336744 Google Scholar
Hunt, L., Morris, J.C., Edwards, D., & Wilson, B.S. (1993). Driving performance in persons with mild senile dementia of the Alzheimer type. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 41, 747–753.Google Scholar
Hunt, L., Carr, D., Duchek, J.M., Grant, E., Buckles, V., & Morris, J.C. (1997). Reliability of the Washington University Road Test: A performance-based assessment for drivers with dementia of the Alzheimer type. Archives of Neurology, 54, 707–712.Google Scholar
Jenkinson, P.M., Preston, C., & Ellis, S.J. (2011). Unawareness after stroke: A review and practical guide to understanding, assessing, and managing anosognosia for hemiplegia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 33(10), 1079–1093. doi: 10.1080/13803395.2011.596822 Google Scholar
Jessen, F., Amariglio, R.E., van Boxtel, M., Breteler, M., Ceccaldi, M., Chetelat, G., & Wagner, M. (2014). A conceptual framework for research on subjective cognitive decline in preclinical Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers & Dementia, 10(6), 844–852. doi: 10.1016/j.jalz.2014.01.001 Google Scholar
Judge, T.A., Locke, E.A., Durham, C.C., & Kluger, A.N. (1998). Dispositional effects on job and life satisfaction: The role of core evaluations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(1), 17–34. doi: 10.1037//0021-9010.83.1.17 Google Scholar
Kelleher, M., Tolea, M.I., & Galvin, J.E. (2016). Anosognosia increases caregiver burden in mild cognitive impairment. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 31(7), 799–808. doi: 10.1002/gps.4394 Google Scholar
Leicht, H., Berwig, M., & Gertz, H. (2010). Anosognosia in Alzheimer’s disease: The role of impairment levels in assessment of insight across domains. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16, 463–473. doi: 10.1017/S1355617710000056 Google Scholar
Lenehan, M., Klekociuk, S., & Summers, M. (2012). Absence of a relationship between subjective memory complaint and objective memory impairment in mild cognitive impairment (MCI): Is it time to abandon subjective memory complaint as an MCI diagnostic criterion? International Psychogeriatrics, 24(9), 1505–1514. doi: 10.1017/S1041610212000695 Google Scholar
Lo, Y., Mendell, N.R., & Rubin, D.B. (2001). Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika, 767–778. doi: 10.1093/biomet/88.3.767 Google Scholar
Lucas, R.E., Le, K., & Dyrenforth, P.S. (2008). Explaining the extraversion/positive affect relation: Sociability cannot account for extraverts’ greater happiness. Journal of Personality, 76(3), 385–414. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00490.x Google Scholar
Malec, J.F., & Moessner, A.M. (2000). Self-awareness, distress, and postacute rehabilitation outcome. Rehabilitation Psychology, 45(3), 227–241. doi: 10.1037/0090-5550.45.3.227 Google Scholar
McCrae, R.R., & Costa, P.T. (1991). Adding Liebe und Arbeit: The full five-factor model and well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17(2), 227–232. doi: 10.1177/014616729101700217 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCrae, R.R., & Costa, P.T. (2003). Personality in adulthood: A Five-Factor Theory perspective (2nd. ed.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
McCrae, R.R. (2004). Conscientiousness. Encyclopedia of applied psychology, 469–472. doi: 10.1016/b0-12-657410-3/00034-9 Google Scholar
McCrae, R.R., & Costa, P.T. (2010). NEO inventories for the NEO Personality Inventory-3 (NEO-PI-3), NEO Five-Factor Inventory-3 (NEO-FFI-3), NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO PI-R): Professional manual. Lutz, FL: PAR.Google Scholar
McKhann, G., Drachman, D., Folstein, M., Katzman, R., Price, D., & Stadlan, E.M. (1984). Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease: Report of the NINCDS-ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer’s Disease. Neurology, 34, 939–944. doi: 10.1212/WNL.34.7.939 Google Scholar
McLachlan, G., & Peel, D. (2004). Finite mixture models. New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Metcalfe, J., & Dunlosky, J. (2008). Metamemory. In H.L. Roediger, I.I.I. (Ed.), Learning and memory: A comprehensive reference (pp. 349–362). Oxford: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Muthén, L.K., & Muthén, B.O. (1998). Mplus User’s Guide. Los Angeles: Muthén & Muthén.Google Scholar
Muthén, B.O. (2004). Latent variable analysis. The Sage handbook of quantitative methodology for the social sciences (pp. 356–68). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Muthén, L.K., & Muthén, B.O. (2006). Mplus User’s Guide (4th edition, Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.Google Scholar
Nelson, T.O., & Narens, L. (1990). Metamemory: A theoretical framework and new findings. In G. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 26, pp. 125–173). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Nelson, T.O., & Narens, L. (1994). Why investigate metacognition? In J. Metcalfe & A. P. Shimamura (Eds.), Metacognition: Knowing about knowing (pp. 1–25). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.Google Scholar
Nooner, K.B., Colcombe, S.J., Tobe, R.H., Mennes, M., Benedict, M.M., Moreno, A.L., & Milham, M.P. (2012). The NKI-Rockland Sample: A model for accelerating the pace of discovery science in psychiatry. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 6, 152. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2012.00152 Google Scholar
Nylund, K.L., Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B.O. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling, 14(4), 535–569.Google Scholar
Ownsworth, T. (2005). The impact of defensive denial upon adjustment following traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychoanalysis, 7(1), 83–94. doi: 10.1080/15294145.2005.10773476 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Passer, M.W., & Smith, R.E. (2009). Psychology: The science of mind and behavior. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.Google Scholar
Pearman, A., & Storandt, M. (2004). Predictors of subjective memory in older adults. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 59(1doi: 10.1093/geronb/59.1.p4 Google Scholar
Pereira, F.S., Yassuda, M.S., Oliveira, A.M., Diniz, B.S., Radanovic, M., Talib, L.L., & Forlenza, O.V. (2010). Profiles of functional deficits in mild cognitive impairment and dementia: Benefits from objective measurement. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16(02), 297. doi: 10.1017/s1355617709991330 Google Scholar
Perfect, T.J., & Schwartz, B.L. (2002). In T.J. Perfect & B.L. Schwartz (Eds.). Introduction: Toward an applied metacognition. Applied Metacognition, 1–12. doi: 10.1017/cbo9780511489976.002 Google Scholar
Prigatano, G.P. (2005). Disturbances of self-awareness and rehabilitation of patients with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 20(1), 19–29. doi: 10.1097/00001199-200501000-00004 Google Scholar
Query, W.T., & Megran, J. (1983). Age-related norms for AVLT in a male patient population. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 39(1), 136–138. doi: 10.1002/1097-4679(198301) Google Scholar
Reed, B.R., Jagust, W.J., & Coulter, L. (1993). Anosognosia in Alzheimer’s disease: Relationships to depression, cognitive function, and cerebral perfusion. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 15(2), 231–244. doi: 10.1080/01688639308402560 Google Scholar
Reid, L.M., & Maclullich, A.M. (2006). Subjective memory complaints and cognitive impairment in older people. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 22(5-6), 471–485. doi: 10.1159/000096295 Google Scholar
Rey, A. (1941). L’examen psychologique dans les cas d’encéphalopathie traumatique. (Les problèmes.). [The psychological examination in cases of traumatic encephalopathy. Problems.]. Archives de Psychologie, 28, 215–285.Google Scholar
Roberts, J.L., & Schmidt, M. (1996). Rey Auditory and Verbal Learning Test: A handbook. Torrance, CA: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Roberts, J.L., Clare, L., & Woods, R.T. (2009). Subjective memory complaints and awareness of memory functioning in mild cognitive impairment: A systematic review. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 28(2), 95–109. doi: 10.1159/000234911 Google Scholar
Schoenberg, M., Dawson, K., Duff, K., Patton, D., Scott, J., & Adams, R. (2006). Test performance and classification statistics for the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test in selected clinical samples. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 21(7), 693–703. doi: 10.1016/j.acn.2006.06.010 Google Scholar
Sherer, M., Bergloff, P., Boake, C., High, W. Jr., & Levin, E. (1998). The Awareness Questionnaire: Factor structure and internal consistency. Brain Injury, 12(1), 63–68. doi: 10.1080/026990598122863 Google Scholar
Sherer, M., Oden, K., Bergloff, P., Levin, E., & High, W. Jr. (1998). Assessment and treatment of impaired awareness after brain injury: Implications for community re-integration. NeuroRehabilitation, 10(1), 25–37. doi: 10.3233/nre-1998-10104 Google Scholar
Simmond, M., & Fleming, J.M. (2003). Occupational therapy assessment of self-awareness following traumatic brain injury. British Journal of Occupational Therapy, 66(10), 447–453. doi: 10.1177/030802260306601003 Google Scholar
Sipps, G.J., & Alexander, R.A. (1987). The multifactorial nature of extraversion-introversion in the Myers-Briggs type indicator and eysenck personality inventory. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 47(3), 543–552. doi: 10.1177/001316448704700301 Google Scholar
Souchay, C., Isingrini, M., Pillon, B., & Gil, R. (2003). Metamemory accuracy in Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal lobe dementia. Neurocase, 9(6), 482–492. doi: 10.1076/neur.9.6.482.29376 Google Scholar
Stallings, G., Boake, C., & Sherer, M. (1995). Comparison of the California Verbal Learning Test and the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test in head-injured patients. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 17(5), 706–712. doi: 10.1080/01688639508405160 Google Scholar
Starkstein, S.E., Jorge, R., Mizrahi, R., Adrian, J., & Robinson, R.G. (2007). Insight and danger in Alzheimer’s disease. European Journal of Neurology, 14(4), 455–460. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-1331.2007.01745.x Google Scholar
Steel, P., Schmidt, J., & Shultz, J. (2008). Refining the relationship between personality and subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 134(1), 138–161. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.138 Google Scholar
Steinberg, S.I., Negash, S., Sammel, M.D., Bogner, H., Harel, B.T., Livney, M.G., & Arnold, S.E. (2013). Subjective memory complaints, cognitive performance, and psychological factors in healthy older adults. American Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease & Other Dementias, 28(8), 776–783. doi: 10.1177/1533317513504817 Google Scholar
Stiles, P.G., & McGarrahan, J.F. (1998). The Geriatric Depression Scale: A comprehensive review. Journal of Clinical Geropsychology, 4, 89–110.Google Scholar
Studer, J., Donati, A., Popp, J., & von Gunten, A. (2014). Subjective cognitive decline in patients with mild cognitive impairment and healthy older adults: Association with personality traits. Geriatrics & Gerontology International, 14(3), 589–595. doi: 10.1111/ggi.12139 Google Scholar
Stuss, D.T., Picton, T.W., & Alexander, M.P. (2001). In S.P. Salloway, P.F. Malloy & J.D. Duffy (Eds.), Consciousness, self-awareness, and the frontal lobes. Neuropsychology Review, 13(4), 181–197. doi: 10.1023/b:nerv.0000009483.91468.fb Google Scholar
Timoney, L.R., & Holder, M.D. (2013). Correlates of Alexithymia. Emotional Processing Deficits and Happiness SpringerBriefs in Well-Being and Quality of Life Research, 41–60. doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-7177-2_6 Google Scholar
Torres, I.J., Mackala, S.A., Kozicky, J., & Yatham, L.N. (2016). Metacognitive knowledge and experience in recently diagnosed patients with bipolar disorder. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 38(7), 730–744. doi: 10.1080/13803395.2016.1161733 Google Scholar
Trzepacz, P.T., Hochstetler, H., Wang, S., Walker, B., & Saykin, A.J. (2015). Relationship between the Montreal Cognitive Assessment and Mini-mental State Examination for assessment of mild cognitive impairment in older adults. BMC Geriatrics, 15(1). doi: 10.1186/s12877-015-0103-3 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turró-Garriga, O., Garre-Olmo, J., Vilalta-Franch, J., Conde-Sala, J.L., Blanco, M.D., & López-Pousa, S. (2013). Burden associated with the presence of anosognosia in Alzheimer’s disease. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(3), 291–297. doi: 10.1002/gps.3824 Google Scholar
Vogel, A., Hasselbalch, S.G., Gade, A., Ziebell, M., & Waldemar, G. (2005). Cognitive and functional neuroimaging correlate for anosognosia in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20(3), 238–246. doi: 10.1002/gps.1272 Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (2011). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence, Second Edition (WASI-II). San Antonio, TX: NCS Pearson.Google Scholar
West, R.L., Dennehy-Basile, D., & Norris, M.P. (1996). Memory self-evaluation: The effects of age and experience. Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition, 3, 67–83. doi: 10.1080/13825589608256613 Google Scholar
Williams, D. (1992). Dispositional optimism, neuroticism, and extraversion. Personality and Individual Differences, 13(4), 475–477. doi: 10.1016/0191-8869(92)90076-2 Google Scholar
Yesavage, J.A., Brink, T.L., Rose, T.L., Lum, O., Huang, V., Adey, M., & Leirer, V.O. (1982). Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: A preliminary report. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 17(1), 37–49.Google Scholar
Youn, J.C., Kim, K.W., Lee, D.Y., Jhoo, J.H., Lee, S.B., Park, J.H., & Woo, J.I. (2009). Development of the Subjective Memory Complaints Questionnaire. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 27(4), 310–317. doi: 10.1159/000205512 Google Scholar
Zanetti, O., Vallotti, B., Frisoni, G.B., Geroldi, C., Bianchetti, A., Pasqualetti, P., &Trabucchi, M. (1999). Insight in dementia: When does it occur? Evidence for a nonlinear relationship between insight and cognitive status. Journals of Gerontology . Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 54(2), 100–106.Google Scholar
Zelenski, J.M., & Larsen, R.J. (1999). Susceptibility to affect: A comparison of three personality taxonomies. Journal of Personality, 67(5), 761–791. doi: 10.1111/1467-6494.00072 Google Scholar