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“Dixie Carmen”: War, Race, and Identity in Oscar Hammerstein's Carmen Jones (1943)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 April 2010

ANNEGRET FAUSER
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Abstract

In December 1943, an all–African American cast starred in the Broadway premiere of Carmen Jones, Oscar Hammerstein II's adaptation of Georges Bizet's Carmen. When Hammerstein began work on Carmen Jones a month after Pearl Harbor, in January 1942, Porgy and Bess was just being revived. Hammerstein's 1942 version of Carmen, set in a Southern town and among African Americans, shows the influence of the revised version of Porgy and Bess, with Catfish Row echoed in a cigarette factory in South Carolina and the Hoity Toity night club. It took Hammerstein more than eighteen months to find a producer, and when the show opened by the end of 1943, the setting in a parachute factory and urban Chicago reflected new priorities brought on by wartime changes. Commercially one of the most successful musical plays on Broadway during its run of 503 performances, Carmen Jones offers a window on the changing issues of culture, class, and race in the United States during World War II. New archival evidence reveals that these topics were part of the work's genesis and production as much as of its reception. This article contextualizes Carmen Jones by focusing on the complex issues of war, race, and identity in the United States in 1942 and 1943.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of the Society for American Music , Volume 4 , Issue 2 , May 2010 , pp. 127 - 174
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Music 2010

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References

References

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HammersteinOscar, II Oscar, II. Carmen Jones. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1945.Google Scholar
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Alpert, Hollis. The Life and Times of Porgy and Bess: The Story of an American Classic. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990.Google Scholar
André, Naomi. “Tom Toms and the New Negro: What Is Africa to William Grant Still?” Paper presented at the 35th Annual Conference of the Society for American Music, Denver, 2009.Google Scholar
Aschenbrenner, Joyce. Katherine Dunham: Dancing a Life. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Barg, Lisa. “Black Voices/White Sounds: Race and Representation in Virgil Thomson's Four Saints in Three Acts.” American Music 18/2 (Summer 2000): 121–61.Google Scholar
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Barg, Lisa. “Paul Robeson's Ballad for Americans: Race and the Cultural Politics of ‘People's Music’.” Journal of the Society for American Music 2/1 (February 2008): 27–70.Google Scholar
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Booker, Bryan D. African Americans in the United States Army in World War II. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2008.Google Scholar
Brodkin, Karen. How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says about Race in America. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
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Depardieu, Benoît. “Carmen Jones: A Carmen ‘à la Afro-America’.” Studies in Musical Theatre 2/1 (December 2008): 223–34.Google Scholar
Dorlag, Arthur, and Irvine, John, eds. The Stage Works of Charles MacArthur. Tallahassee: Florida State University Foundation, 1974.Google Scholar
Fauser, Annegret. “Carmen in Khaki: Europäische Oper in den Vereinigten Staaten während des Zweiten Weltkrieges.” In Oper im Wandel der Gesellschaft. Kulturtransfers und Netzwerke des Musiktheaters im modernen Europa, ed. Müller, Sven Oliver, Ther, Philipp, Toelle, Jutta, and Nieden, Gesa zur, 303–29. Vienna: Oldenbourg and Böhlau, 2010.Google Scholar
Ferencz, George J., ed. “The Broadway Sound”: The Autobiography and Selected Essays of Robert Russell Bennett. Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Fordin, Hugh. Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II. New York: Random House, 1977.Google Scholar
Gaines, Kevin. “Duke Ellington, Black, Brown, and Beige, and the Cultural Politics of Race.” In Music and the Racial Imagination, ed. Radano, Ronald and Bohlman, Philip V., 585–602. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Gaines, Kevin. Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Garcia, David. “Going Primitive to the Movements and Sounds of Mambo.” Musical Quarterly 89/4 (Winter 2006): 505–23.Google Scholar
Giles, Freda Scott. “Lulu Belle.” In Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance, ed. Wintz, Cary D. and Finkelman, Paul, 746. New York: Routledge, 2004.Google Scholar
Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Gubar, Susan. Racechanges: White Skin, Black Face in American Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Hammond, John, and Townsend, Irving. On Record: An Autobiography. New York: Ridge Press, 1977.Google Scholar
Hecht, Ben. Charlie: The Improbable Life and Times of Charles MacArthur. New York: Harper, 1957.Google Scholar
Hubbs, Nadine. The Queer Composition of America's Sound: Gay Modernists, American Music, and National Identity. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Johnson, John A. “Gershwin's ‘American Folk Opera’: The Genesis, Style, and Reputation of Porgy and Bess (1935).” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1996.Google Scholar
Jones, Gavin. Strange Talk: The Politics of Dialect Literature in Gilded Age America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Kennedy, David M. Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Levine, Lawrence W. Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Library of Congress. American Memory, Federal Theatre Project: Macbeth. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/fedtp/ftsmth00.html., accessed 1 March 2009.Google Scholar
Locke, Ralph P. “Doing the Impossible: On the Musically Exotic.” Journal of Musicological Research 27/4 (2008): 334–58.Google Scholar
Locke, Ralph P. “Spanish Local Color in Bizet's Carmen: Unexplored Borrowings and Transformations.” In Music, Theater, and Cultural Transfer: Paris, 1830–1914, ed. Fauser, Annegret and Everist, Mark, 316–60. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Manning, Susan. Modern Dance, Negro Dance: Race in Motion. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Marlow, Sam. “Bizet Meets Buena Vista.” The Times, 9 June 2007.Google Scholar
McClary, Susan. Georges Bizet: Carmen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Middleton, Richard. Voicing the Popular: On the Subjects of Popular Music. New York: Routledge, 2006.Google Scholar
Miller, Leta E. “Elmer Keeton and His ‘Bay Area Negro Chorus’: Creating an Artistic Identity in Depression-Era San Francisco.” Black Music Research Journal, forthcoming, 30/2 (Fall 2010).Google Scholar
Most, Andrea. Making Americans: Jews and the Broadway Musical. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
“Muriel Smith.” Obituary in The Black Perspective in Music 13/2 (Autumn 1985): 244–45.Google Scholar
Nietzsche, Friedrich. Der Fall Wagner: Ein Musikantenproblem. Leipzig: C. G. Naumann, 1892.Google Scholar
North, Michael. The Dialect of Modernism: Race, Language & Twentieth-Century Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
PerpenerJohn O., III John O., III. African-American Concert Dance: The Harlem Renaissance and Beyond. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Peterson, Geoffrey R., ed. Annals of the Metropolitan Opera: Performances and Artists, 1883–2000. CD-ROM. New York: Metropolitan Opera Guild, 2002.Google Scholar
Pollack, Howard. George Gershwin: His Life and Work. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Potter, Pamela. “What Is ‘Nazi Music’?” Musical Quarterly 88/4 (Winter 2005): 428–55.Google Scholar
Radano, Ronald. Lying Up a Nation: Race and Black Music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Royal Festival Hall. Promotional Web site for the Performance of Carmen Jones, 2007. http://www.southbankcentre.co.uk/carmenjones, accessed 10 December 2008.Google Scholar
Schiller Institute. “Dialogue with Sylvia Olden Lee, Pianist and Vocal Coach.” 7 February 1998. http://www.schillerinstitute.org/fid_97-01/fid_981_lee_interview.html, accessed 1 February 2009.Google Scholar
Schwartz, Barry. “Memory as a Cultural System: Abraham Lincoln in World War II.” American Sociological Review 61/5 (October 1996): 908–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silver, Reuben. “A History of the Karamu Theatre of Karamu House, 1915–1960.” Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, 1961.Google Scholar
Smith, Jeff. “Black Faces, White Voices: The Politics of Dubbing in Carmen Jones.” The Velvet Light Trap 51 (Spring 2003): 29–42.Google Scholar
Stowe, David W. Swing Changes: Big-Band Jazz in New Deal America. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Suskin, Steven. The Sound of Broadway Music: A Book of Orchestrators and Orchestrations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Watkins, Glenn. Pyramids at the Louvre: Music, Culture, and Collage from Stravinsky to the Postmodernists. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1994.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, Nancy J. “Long-Distance Runners of the Civil Rights Movement: The Contribution of Jews to the NAACP and the National Urban League in the Early Twentieth Century.” In Struggles in the Promised Land: Toward a History of Black-Jewish Relations in the United States, ed. Salzman, Jack and West, Cornel, 123–52. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Wells, Christopher. “Grand Opera as Racial Uplift: The National Negro Opera Company (1941–1962).” M.A. thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2009.Google Scholar
Woll, Allen. Black Musical Theatre: From Coontown to Dreamgirls. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989.Google Scholar
Library of Congress. National Negro Opera Company Collection.Google Scholar
Library of Congress. Oscar Hammerstein II Collection.Google Scholar
New York Public Library. Musical Arrangements for Carmen Jones (Autograph-Score Fragments by Robert Russell Bennett, Manuscript Copies of Parts, Mimeographed Orchestral and Choral Parts, and Annotated Orchestral Parts from Bizet's La Jolie Fille de Perth and Arlésienne Suite).Google Scholar
New York Public Library. Billy Rose Collection.Google Scholar
New York Public Library. Howard Bay Collection.Google Scholar
Bizet, Georges, Bennett, Robert Russell, and Hammerstein II, Oscar. Carmen Jones. Original-Cast Recording (1944). Decca 440 066 780-2, 2003.Google Scholar
Bizet, Georges, Bennett, Robert Russell, and Hammerstein II, Oscar. Carmen Jones, Restored Edition. New York: Rodgers and Hammerstein Theatricals, 2007.Google Scholar
Covarrubias, Miguel. Carmen Jones. Four Colored Drawings (1944). http://www.americanartarchives.com/covarrubias.htm, accessed 15 March 2009.Google Scholar
HammersteinOscar, II Oscar, II. Carmen Jones. Typescript. Copyright Deposit 31 July 1942. Library of Congress, Performing Arts Reading Room, shelf mark ML50 B625C4 1942.Google Scholar
HammersteinOscar, II Oscar, II. Carmen Jones. Typescript. Copyright Deposit 30 September 1943. Library of Congress, Performing Arts Reading Room, shelf mark ML50 B625C4 1943.Google Scholar
HammersteinOscar, II Oscar, II. Carmen Jones. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1945.Google Scholar
Thomson, Virgil. The Art of Judging Music. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1948.Google Scholar
U.S. periodicals and newspapers cited in addition to the extensive clippings file in Wc OHC: Boston Herald, Chicago Daily Tribune, Chicago Defender, Christian Science Monitor, Cue, Los Angeles Times, New York Amsterdam News, New York Times, Newsweek, Philadelphia Record, Phylon, Pittsburgh Courier, Time, Variety, Wall Street Journal, Washington Post.Google Scholar
Allen, Ray. “An American Folk Opera? Triangulating Folkness, Blackness, and Americaness in Gershwin and Heyward's Porgy and Bess.” Journal of American Folklore 117/465 (Summer 2004): 243–61.Google Scholar
Alpert, Hollis. The Life and Times of Porgy and Bess: The Story of an American Classic. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990.Google Scholar
André, Naomi. “Tom Toms and the New Negro: What Is Africa to William Grant Still?” Paper presented at the 35th Annual Conference of the Society for American Music, Denver, 2009.Google Scholar
Aschenbrenner, Joyce. Katherine Dunham: Dancing a Life. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Barg, Lisa. “Black Voices/White Sounds: Race and Representation in Virgil Thomson's Four Saints in Three Acts.” American Music 18/2 (Summer 2000): 121–61.Google Scholar
Barg, Lisa. “National Voices/Modernist Histories: Race, Performance and Remembrance in American Music, 1927–1943.” Ph.D. diss., State University of New York at Stony Brook, 2001.Google Scholar
Barg, Lisa. “Paul Robeson's Ballad for Americans: Race and the Cultural Politics of ‘People's Music’.” Journal of the Society for American Music 2/1 (February 2008): 27–70.Google Scholar
Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2004.Google Scholar
Booker, Bryan D. African Americans in the United States Army in World War II. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2008.Google Scholar
Brodkin, Karen. How Jews Became White Folks and What That Says about Race in America. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Carter, Tim. “Music and the Federal Theater Project: A View from the West Coast.” Paper presented at the 35th Annual Conference of the Society for American Music, Denver, 2009.Google Scholar
Carter, Tim. Oklahoma!: The Making of an American Musical. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Robert L. A. “Local Color: The Representation of Race in Carmen and Carmen Jones.” In Operatic Migrations: Transforming Works and Crossing Boundaries, ed. Marvin, Roberta Montemorra and Thomas, Downing A., 217–39. Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2006.Google Scholar
Denning, Michael. The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century. London: Verso, 1997.Google Scholar
Depardieu, Benoît. “Carmen Jones: A Carmen ‘à la Afro-America’.” Studies in Musical Theatre 2/1 (December 2008): 223–34.Google Scholar
Dorlag, Arthur, and Irvine, John, eds. The Stage Works of Charles MacArthur. Tallahassee: Florida State University Foundation, 1974.Google Scholar
Fauser, Annegret. “Carmen in Khaki: Europäische Oper in den Vereinigten Staaten während des Zweiten Weltkrieges.” In Oper im Wandel der Gesellschaft. Kulturtransfers und Netzwerke des Musiktheaters im modernen Europa, ed. Müller, Sven Oliver, Ther, Philipp, Toelle, Jutta, and Nieden, Gesa zur, 303–29. Vienna: Oldenbourg and Böhlau, 2010.Google Scholar
Ferencz, George J., ed. “The Broadway Sound”: The Autobiography and Selected Essays of Robert Russell Bennett. Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Fordin, Hugh. Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II. New York: Random House, 1977.Google Scholar
Gaines, Kevin. “Duke Ellington, Black, Brown, and Beige, and the Cultural Politics of Race.” In Music and the Racial Imagination, ed. Radano, Ronald and Bohlman, Philip V., 585–602. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.Google Scholar
Gaines, Kevin. Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996.Google Scholar
Garcia, David. “Going Primitive to the Movements and Sounds of Mambo.” Musical Quarterly 89/4 (Winter 2006): 505–23.Google Scholar
Giles, Freda Scott. “Lulu Belle.” In Encyclopedia of the Harlem Renaissance, ed. Wintz, Cary D. and Finkelman, Paul, 746. New York: Routledge, 2004.Google Scholar
Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Gubar, Susan. Racechanges: White Skin, Black Face in American Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Hammond, John, and Townsend, Irving. On Record: An Autobiography. New York: Ridge Press, 1977.Google Scholar
Hecht, Ben. Charlie: The Improbable Life and Times of Charles MacArthur. New York: Harper, 1957.Google Scholar
Hubbs, Nadine. The Queer Composition of America's Sound: Gay Modernists, American Music, and National Identity. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Johnson, John A. “Gershwin's ‘American Folk Opera’: The Genesis, Style, and Reputation of Porgy and Bess (1935).” Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 1996.Google Scholar
Jones, Gavin. Strange Talk: The Politics of Dialect Literature in Gilded Age America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Kennedy, David M. Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Levine, Lawrence W. Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Library of Congress. American Memory, Federal Theatre Project: Macbeth. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/fedtp/ftsmth00.html., accessed 1 March 2009.Google Scholar
Locke, Ralph P. “Doing the Impossible: On the Musically Exotic.” Journal of Musicological Research 27/4 (2008): 334–58.Google Scholar
Locke, Ralph P. “Spanish Local Color in Bizet's Carmen: Unexplored Borrowings and Transformations.” In Music, Theater, and Cultural Transfer: Paris, 1830–1914, ed. Fauser, Annegret and Everist, Mark, 316–60. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Manning, Susan. Modern Dance, Negro Dance: Race in Motion. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2004.Google Scholar
Marlow, Sam. “Bizet Meets Buena Vista.” The Times, 9 June 2007.Google Scholar
McClary, Susan. Georges Bizet: Carmen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.Google Scholar
Middleton, Richard. Voicing the Popular: On the Subjects of Popular Music. New York: Routledge, 2006.Google Scholar
Miller, Leta E. “Elmer Keeton and His ‘Bay Area Negro Chorus’: Creating an Artistic Identity in Depression-Era San Francisco.” Black Music Research Journal, forthcoming, 30/2 (Fall 2010).Google Scholar
Most, Andrea. Making Americans: Jews and the Broadway Musical. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004.Google Scholar
“Muriel Smith.” Obituary in The Black Perspective in Music 13/2 (Autumn 1985): 244–45.Google Scholar
Nietzsche, Friedrich. Der Fall Wagner: Ein Musikantenproblem. Leipzig: C. G. Naumann, 1892.Google Scholar
North, Michael. The Dialect of Modernism: Race, Language & Twentieth-Century Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
PerpenerJohn O., III John O., III. African-American Concert Dance: The Harlem Renaissance and Beyond. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Peterson, Geoffrey R., ed. Annals of the Metropolitan Opera: Performances and Artists, 1883–2000. CD-ROM. New York: Metropolitan Opera Guild, 2002.Google Scholar
Pollack, Howard. George Gershwin: His Life and Work. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Potter, Pamela. “What Is ‘Nazi Music’?” Musical Quarterly 88/4 (Winter 2005): 428–55.Google Scholar
Radano, Ronald. Lying Up a Nation: Race and Black Music. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Royal Festival Hall. Promotional Web site for the Performance of Carmen Jones, 2007. http://www.southbankcentre.co.uk/carmenjones, accessed 10 December 2008.Google Scholar
Schiller Institute. “Dialogue with Sylvia Olden Lee, Pianist and Vocal Coach.” 7 February 1998. http://www.schillerinstitute.org/fid_97-01/fid_981_lee_interview.html, accessed 1 February 2009.Google Scholar
Schwartz, Barry. “Memory as a Cultural System: Abraham Lincoln in World War II.” American Sociological Review 61/5 (October 1996): 908–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silver, Reuben. “A History of the Karamu Theatre of Karamu House, 1915–1960.” Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, 1961.Google Scholar
Smith, Jeff. “Black Faces, White Voices: The Politics of Dubbing in Carmen Jones.” The Velvet Light Trap 51 (Spring 2003): 29–42.Google Scholar
Stowe, David W. Swing Changes: Big-Band Jazz in New Deal America. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1994.Google Scholar
Suskin, Steven. The Sound of Broadway Music: A Book of Orchestrators and Orchestrations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Watkins, Glenn. Pyramids at the Louvre: Music, Culture, and Collage from Stravinsky to the Postmodernists. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1994.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, Nancy J. “Long-Distance Runners of the Civil Rights Movement: The Contribution of Jews to the NAACP and the National Urban League in the Early Twentieth Century.” In Struggles in the Promised Land: Toward a History of Black-Jewish Relations in the United States, ed. Salzman, Jack and West, Cornel, 123–52. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.Google Scholar
Wells, Christopher. “Grand Opera as Racial Uplift: The National Negro Opera Company (1941–1962).” M.A. thesis, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2009.Google Scholar
Woll, Allen. Black Musical Theatre: From Coontown to Dreamgirls. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1989.Google Scholar