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Joseph Johnson's Lost Gamuts: Native Hymnody, Materials of Exchange, and the Colonialist Archive

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 January 2020

GLENDA GOODMAN
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Abstract

In the winter of 1772–1773, Joseph Johnson (Mohegan/Brothertown) copied musical notation into eight books for Christian Native Americans in Farmington, Connecticut, a town established by English settler colonists on the land known as Tunxis Sepus. Johnson did so because, as he wrote in his diary, “The indians are all desireous of haveing Gamuts.” Johnson's “gamuts” have not survived, but their erstwhile existence reveals hymnody's important role within the Native community in Farmington as well as cross-culturally with the English settler colonists. In order to reconstruct the missing music books and assess their sociocultural significance, this article proposes a surrogate bibliography, gathering a constellation of sources among which Johnson's books would have circulated and gained meaning for Native American Christians and English colonists (including other printed and manuscript music, wampum, and legal documents pertaining to land transfer). By bringing together this multi-modal network of materials, this essay seeks to redress the material and epistemological effects of a colonialist archive. On one level, this is a case study that focuses on a short period of time in order to document the impact on sacred music of conversion, literacy, shifting intercultural relations, and a drive to preserve sovereignty. On another, this article presents a methodological intervention for dealing with lost materials and colonialist archives without recourse to discourses of recovery or discovery, the latter of which is considered through the framework of what I term “archival orientalism.”

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of the Society for American Music , Volume 13 , Special Issue 4: Music, Indigeneity, and Colonialism in the Americas , November 2019 , pp. 482 - 507
Copyright
Copyright © The Society for American Music 2020

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Footnotes

Preliminary versions of this paper were presented at the Society for American Music Conference (Boston, 2016) and the 4th Early Americanist Summit on “Translation and Transmission in the Early Americas” (Washington D.C and the University of Maryland, 2016). I am grateful for the feedback I received on a scaled down version of this article presented at the annual conference for the Omohundro Institute (June 2019) and the Society for the History of Authorship, Reading, and Publishing conference (July 2019). My thanks to Courtney Cottrell, Megan Fulopp, Katharine Gerbner, Matthew Laube, Timothy Rommen, Matthew Laube and Iain Fenlon, and Nadine Zimmerli whose comments on drafts of this article made it immeasurably stronger. Special recognition goes to the University of Pennsylvania graduate students in Music 604: Sounding Archives, for the discussions about archives and ethics, which were on my mind when I revised this article.

References

References

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Goodman, Glenda. Cultivated by Hand: Amateur Musicians in the Early American Republic. New York: Oxford University Press, forthcoming.Google Scholar
Hartman, Saidiya. “Venus in Two Acts.” Small Axe 12, no. 2 (June 2008): 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helton, Laura, Leroy, Justin, Mishler, Max, Seeley, Samantha, and Sweeney, Shauna, eds. “The Question of Recovery: Slavery, Freedom, and the Archive.” Special issue, Social Text 33, no. 4 (December 2015).Google Scholar
Hill, Susan M.The Clay We Are Made Of: Haudenosaunee Land Tenure on the Grand River. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Kidd, Thomas S.The Great Awakening: The Roots of Evangelical Christianity in Colonial America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Koegel, John. “Spanish and French Mission Music in Colonial North America.” Journal of the Royal Musical Association 126, no. 1 (2001): 1–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lassiter, Luke Eric, Ellis, Clyde, and Kotay, Ralph. The Jesus Road: Kiowas, Christianity, and Indian Hymns. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Law, Andrew. The Musical Primer. Cheshire, CT: William Law, 1800.Google Scholar
Levine, Victoria Lindsay, ed. Writing American Indian Music: Historic Transcriptions, Notations, and Arrangements. Middleton, WI: A-R Editions, 2002.Google Scholar
Love, Harold. The Culture and Commerce of Texts: Scribal Publication in Seventeenth-Century England. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998.Google Scholar
McNally, Michael D.Ojibwe Singers: Hymns, Grief, and a Native Culture in Motion. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
McNally, Michael D. “The Practice of Native American Christianity.” Church History 69, no. 4 (2000): 834–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merrell, James H. “Second Thoughts on Colonial Historians and American Indians.” William and Mary Quarterly 69, no. 3 (2012): 451–512.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mt. Pleasant, Alyssa, Wigginton, Caroline, Wisecup, Kelly, et al. “Materials and Methods in Native American and Indigenous Studies.” Forum. William and Mary Quarterly 75, no. 2 (April 2018), and Early American Literature 53, no. 2 (2018).Google Scholar
Murray, Laura J., ed. To Do Good to my Indian Brethren: The Writings of Joseph Johnson, 1551–1776. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998.Google Scholar
O'Brien, Jean M.Firsting and Lasting: Writing Indians Out of Existence in New England. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ochoa Gautier, Ana María. Aurality: Listening and Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century Colombia. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostler, Jeffrey, Shoemaker, Nancy, eds. “Forum: Settler Colonialism in Early American History.” William and Mary Quarterly 76, no. 3 (July 2019): 361–450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Otto, Paul. “‘This is that which…They Call Wampum’: Europeans Coming to Terms with Native Shell Beads.” Early American Studies 15, no. 1 (Winter 2017): 1–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, Lara. “The Transnational and the Text-Searchable: Digitized Sources and the Shadows They Cast.” American Historical Review 121, no. 2 (April 2016): 377–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reed, Trevor. “Reclaiming Ownership of the Indigenous Voice: The Hopi Music Repatriation Project.” In The Oxford Handbook of Musical Repatriation, edited by Gunderson, Frank, Lancefield, Robert C., and Woods, Bret. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190659806.013.3Google Scholar
Revuluri, Sindhumathi. “Orientalism and Musical Knowledge: Lessons from Edward Said.” In “Round Table: Edward Said and Musicology Today.” Journal of the Royal Musical Association 141, no. 1 (2016): 205–9.Google Scholar
Rivett, Sarah. Unscripted America: Indigenous Languages and the Origins of a Literary Nation. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Round, Phillip H.Removable Type: Histories of the Book in Indian Country, 1663–1880. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Rudes, Blair A. “Resurrecting Wampano (Quiripi) from the Dead: Phonological Preliminaries.” Anthropological Linguistics 39, no. 1 (Spring 1997): 1–59.Google Scholar
Russell, Craig H.From Serra to Sancho: Music and Pageantry in the California Missions. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Said, Edward W.Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1978. 25th Anniversary Edition. New York: Vintage Books, 1994.Google Scholar
Salisbury, Neal. “Embracing Ambiguity: Native Peoples and Christianity in Seventeenth-Century North America.” Ethnohistory 50, no. 2 (Spring 2003): 247–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shields, David S. “The Manuscript in the British American World of Print.” Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 102, no. 2 (1993): 403–16.Google Scholar
Shoemaker, Nancy. A Strange Likeness: Becoming Red and White in Eighteenth-Century North America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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Silverman, David J.Red Brethren: The Brothertown and Stockbridge Indians and the Problem of Race in Early America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Simpson, Audra. “The Ruse of Consent and the Anatomy of ‘Refusal’: Cases from Indigenous North America and Australia.” Postcolonial Studies 20, no. 1 (2017): 18–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Linda Tuhiwai. Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples. London: Zed Books, 1999.Google Scholar
Spinney, Ann Morrison. Passamaquoddy Ceremonial Songs: Aesthetics and Survival. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Stern, Jessica Yirush. The Lives in Objects: Native Americans, British Colonists, and Cultures of Labor and Exchange in the Southeast. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoler, Ann Laura. Along the Archival Grain: Epistemic Anxieties and Colonial Common Sense. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Terrance, Laura L. “Resisting Colonial Education: Zitkala-Sa and Native Feminist Archival Refusal.” International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 24, no. 5 (October 2011): 621–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomlinson, Gary. The Singing of the New World: Indigenous Voice in the Era of European Contact. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Trouillot, Michel-Rolph. Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History. Boston: Beacon Press, 1995.Google Scholar
Warkentin, Germaine. “In Search of ‘The Word of the Other’: Aboriginal Sign Systems and the History of the Book in Canada.” Book History 2 (1999): 1–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wenger, Seth. “Thomas Commuck's Indian Melodies: Identity, Ritual, and the Colonized Mind.” Unpublished paper, 2017.Google Scholar
Wheeler, Rachel and Eyerly, Sarah, “Songs of the Spirit: Hymnody in the Moravian Mohican Missions.” Journal of Moravian History 17, no. 1 (Spring 2017): 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, Richard. The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winiarski, Douglas L.Darkness Falls on the Land of Light: Experiencing Religious Awakenings in Eighteenth-Century New England. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wogan, Peter. “Perceptions of European Literacy in Early Contact Situations.” Ethnohistory 41, no. 3 (Summer 1994): 407–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolfe, Patrick. “Settler Colonialism and the Elimination of the Native.” Journal of Genocide Research 8, no. 4 (2006): 387–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wyss, Hilary E.English Letters and Indian Literacies: Reading, Writing, and New England Missionary Schools, 1750–1830. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, Robert J. C.Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race. New York: Routledge, 1995.Google Scholar
Johnson, Joseph. Diary, MssCol 1572. Manuscripts and Archives Division. New York Public Library. New York, NY.Google Scholar
Sanders, George. Music manuscript, Ms Codex 1721. Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts. University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia, PA.Google Scholar
Sandey, John. Manuscript. Music Book Collection. American Antiquarian Society. Worcester, MA.Google Scholar
Sternhold, Thomas, and Hopkins, John. The Whole Booke of Psalmes. London: John Day, 1562.Google Scholar
Yale Indian Papers Project. Yale University. New Haven, CT.Google Scholar
Andersen, Chris and O'Brien, Jean M., eds. Sources and Methods in Indigenous Studies. New York: Routledge, 2017.Google Scholar
Andrews, Edward E.Native Apostles: Black and Indian Missionaries in the British Atlantic World. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Axtell, James. The Invasion Within: The Contest of Cultures in Colonial North America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.Google Scholar
Bloechl, Olivia A.Native American Song at the Frontiers of Early Modern Music. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Boone, Elizabeth Hill, and Mignolo, Walter D., eds. Writing without Words: Alternative Literacies in Mesoamerica and the Andes. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowker, Geoffrey C., and Star, Susan Leigh. Sorting Things Out: Classification and Its Consequences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999.Google Scholar
Britton, Allen Perdue. “Theoretical Introductions in American Tune-Books to 1800.” PhD diss., University of Michigan, 1949.Google Scholar
Britton, Allen Perdue and Lowens, Irving. American Sacred Music Imprints: 1698–1810: A Bibliography, compiled by Crawford, Richard. Worcester, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1990.Google Scholar
Brooks, Joanna. American Lazarus: Religion and the Rise of African-American and Native American Literatures. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.Google Scholar
Brooks, Lisa. The Common Pot: The Recovery of Native Space in the Northeast. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 2008.Google Scholar
Brooks, Lisa. Our Beloved Kin: A New History of King Philip's War. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Bross, Kristina, and Wyss, Hilary E., eds. Early Native Literacies in New England: A Documentary and Critical Anthology. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Cavanagh, Beverley. “The Transmission of Algonkian Indian Hymns: Between Orality and Literacy.” In Musical Canada: Words and Music Honouring Helmut Kallmann, edited by Beckwith, John and Hall, Frederick A., 3–28. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988.Google Scholar
Cohen, Matt, and Glover, Jeffrey, eds. Colonial Mediascapes: Sensory Worlds of the Early Americas. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, Matt. The Networked Wilderness: Communicating in Early New England. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Conroy, David W. “The Defense of Indian Land Rights: William Bollan and the Mohegan Case in 1743.” Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 103, no. 2 (October 1993): 395–424.Google Scholar
Colwell, Chip. Plundered Skulls and Stolen Spirits: Inside the Fight to Reclaim Native America's Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crawford, Richard, and Krummel, D. W.. “Early American Music Printing and Publishing.” In Printing and Society in Early America, edited by Joyce, William L., Hall, David D., Brown, Richard D., and Hench, John B., 186–227. Worcester, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1983.Google Scholar
Cruikshank, Julie. Do Glaciers Listen?: Local Knowledge, Colonial Encounters, and Social Imagination. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Davis, Natalie Zemon. “Beyond the Market: Books as Gifts in Sixteenth-Century France.” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 33 (1983): 69–88.Google Scholar
Deloria, Philip J.Playing Indian. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998.Google Scholar
Deloria, Philip J. “What Is the Middle Ground, Anyway?” William and Mary Quarterly 63, no. 1 (January 2006): 15–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeLucia, Christine M.Memory Lands: King Philip's War and the Place of Violence in the Northeast. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2018.Google Scholar
Den Ouden, Amy E.Beyond Conquest: Native Peoples and the Struggle for History in New England. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Erben, Patrick M.A Harmony of the Spirits: Translation and the Language of Community in Early Pennsylvania. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feder, Kenneth L. “‘The Avaricious Humour of Designing Englishmen’: The Ethnohistory of Land Transactions in the Farmington Valley.” Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Connecticut 45 (1983): 29–40.Google Scholar
Fisher, Linford D.The Indian Great Awakening: Religion and the Shaping of Native Cultures in Early America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fox, Aaron A. “Repatriation as Reanimation through Reciprocity.” In The Cambridge History of World Music, edited by Bohlman, Philip, 1:522–54. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Fuentes, Marisa J.Dispossessed Lives: Enslaved Women, Violence, and the Archive. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerbner, Katharine. “Theorizing Conversion: Christianity, Colonization, and Consciousness in the Early Modern Atlantic World.” History Compass 13, no. 3 (2015): 134–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodman, Glenda. “‘But They Differ from Us in Sound’: Indian Psalmody and the Soundscape of Colonialism, 1651–75.” William and Mary Quarterly 69, no. 4 (October 2012): 793–822.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodman, Glenda. Cultivated by Hand: Amateur Musicians in the Early American Republic. New York: Oxford University Press, forthcoming.Google Scholar
Hartman, Saidiya. “Venus in Two Acts.” Small Axe 12, no. 2 (June 2008): 1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helton, Laura, Leroy, Justin, Mishler, Max, Seeley, Samantha, and Sweeney, Shauna, eds. “The Question of Recovery: Slavery, Freedom, and the Archive.” Special issue, Social Text 33, no. 4 (December 2015).Google Scholar
Hill, Susan M.The Clay We Are Made Of: Haudenosaunee Land Tenure on the Grand River. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Kidd, Thomas S.The Great Awakening: The Roots of Evangelical Christianity in Colonial America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Koegel, John. “Spanish and French Mission Music in Colonial North America.” Journal of the Royal Musical Association 126, no. 1 (2001): 1–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lassiter, Luke Eric, Ellis, Clyde, and Kotay, Ralph. The Jesus Road: Kiowas, Christianity, and Indian Hymns. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002.Google Scholar
Law, Andrew. The Musical Primer. Cheshire, CT: William Law, 1800.Google Scholar
Levine, Victoria Lindsay, ed. Writing American Indian Music: Historic Transcriptions, Notations, and Arrangements. Middleton, WI: A-R Editions, 2002.Google Scholar
Love, Harold. The Culture and Commerce of Texts: Scribal Publication in Seventeenth-Century England. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998.Google Scholar
McNally, Michael D.Ojibwe Singers: Hymns, Grief, and a Native Culture in Motion. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
McNally, Michael D. “The Practice of Native American Christianity.” Church History 69, no. 4 (2000): 834–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merrell, James H. “Second Thoughts on Colonial Historians and American Indians.” William and Mary Quarterly 69, no. 3 (2012): 451–512.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mt. Pleasant, Alyssa, Wigginton, Caroline, Wisecup, Kelly, et al. “Materials and Methods in Native American and Indigenous Studies.” Forum. William and Mary Quarterly 75, no. 2 (April 2018), and Early American Literature 53, no. 2 (2018).Google Scholar
Murray, Laura J., ed. To Do Good to my Indian Brethren: The Writings of Joseph Johnson, 1551–1776. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1998.Google Scholar
O'Brien, Jean M.Firsting and Lasting: Writing Indians Out of Existence in New England. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ochoa Gautier, Ana María. Aurality: Listening and Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century Colombia. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostler, Jeffrey, Shoemaker, Nancy, eds. “Forum: Settler Colonialism in Early American History.” William and Mary Quarterly 76, no. 3 (July 2019): 361–450.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Otto, Paul. “‘This is that which…They Call Wampum’: Europeans Coming to Terms with Native Shell Beads.” Early American Studies 15, no. 1 (Winter 2017): 1–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, Lara. “The Transnational and the Text-Searchable: Digitized Sources and the Shadows They Cast.” American Historical Review 121, no. 2 (April 2016): 377–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reed, Trevor. “Reclaiming Ownership of the Indigenous Voice: The Hopi Music Repatriation Project.” In The Oxford Handbook of Musical Repatriation, edited by Gunderson, Frank, Lancefield, Robert C., and Woods, Bret. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190659806.013.3Google Scholar
Revuluri, Sindhumathi. “Orientalism and Musical Knowledge: Lessons from Edward Said.” In “Round Table: Edward Said and Musicology Today.” Journal of the Royal Musical Association 141, no. 1 (2016): 205–9.Google Scholar
Rivett, Sarah. Unscripted America: Indigenous Languages and the Origins of a Literary Nation. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Round, Phillip H.Removable Type: Histories of the Book in Indian Country, 1663–1880. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Rudes, Blair A. “Resurrecting Wampano (Quiripi) from the Dead: Phonological Preliminaries.” Anthropological Linguistics 39, no. 1 (Spring 1997): 1–59.Google Scholar
Russell, Craig H.From Serra to Sancho: Music and Pageantry in the California Missions. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Said, Edward W.Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1978. 25th Anniversary Edition. New York: Vintage Books, 1994.Google Scholar
Salisbury, Neal. “Embracing Ambiguity: Native Peoples and Christianity in Seventeenth-Century North America.” Ethnohistory 50, no. 2 (Spring 2003): 247–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shields, David S. “The Manuscript in the British American World of Print.” Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 102, no. 2 (1993): 403–16.Google Scholar
Shoemaker, Nancy. A Strange Likeness: Becoming Red and White in Eighteenth-Century North America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverman, David J.Faith and Boundaries: Colonists, Christianity, and Community among the Wampanoag Indians of Martha's Vineyard, 1600–1871. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silverman, David J.Red Brethren: The Brothertown and Stockbridge Indians and the Problem of Race in Early America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Simpson, Audra. “The Ruse of Consent and the Anatomy of ‘Refusal’: Cases from Indigenous North America and Australia.” Postcolonial Studies 20, no. 1 (2017): 18–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Linda Tuhiwai. Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples. London: Zed Books, 1999.Google Scholar
Spinney, Ann Morrison. Passamaquoddy Ceremonial Songs: Aesthetics and Survival. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2010.Google Scholar
Stern, Jessica Yirush. The Lives in Objects: Native Americans, British Colonists, and Cultures of Labor and Exchange in the Southeast. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoler, Ann Laura. Along the Archival Grain: Epistemic Anxieties and Colonial Common Sense. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Terrance, Laura L. “Resisting Colonial Education: Zitkala-Sa and Native Feminist Archival Refusal.” International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 24, no. 5 (October 2011): 621–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomlinson, Gary. The Singing of the New World: Indigenous Voice in the Era of European Contact. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Trouillot, Michel-Rolph. Silencing the Past: Power and the Production of History. Boston: Beacon Press, 1995.Google Scholar
Warkentin, Germaine. “In Search of ‘The Word of the Other’: Aboriginal Sign Systems and the History of the Book in Canada.” Book History 2 (1999): 1–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wenger, Seth. “Thomas Commuck's Indian Melodies: Identity, Ritual, and the Colonized Mind.” Unpublished paper, 2017.Google Scholar
Wheeler, Rachel and Eyerly, Sarah, “Songs of the Spirit: Hymnody in the Moravian Mohican Missions.” Journal of Moravian History 17, no. 1 (Spring 2017): 1–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, Richard. The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winiarski, Douglas L.Darkness Falls on the Land of Light: Experiencing Religious Awakenings in Eighteenth-Century New England. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wogan, Peter. “Perceptions of European Literacy in Early Contact Situations.” Ethnohistory 41, no. 3 (Summer 1994): 407–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolfe, Patrick. “Settler Colonialism and the Elimination of the Native.” Journal of Genocide Research 8, no. 4 (2006): 387–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wyss, Hilary E.English Letters and Indian Literacies: Reading, Writing, and New England Missionary Schools, 1750–1830. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, Robert J. C.Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race. New York: Routledge, 1995.Google Scholar