Hostname: page-component-7dd5485656-frp75 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-10-30T21:02:00.269Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Graphical interfaces for knowledge engineering: an overview of relevant literature

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 July 2009

Sara Jones
Sara Jones
Affiliation:
Department of Computer Science, City University, Northampton Square, London ECIV 0HB
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Literature relevant to the design and development of graphical interfaces for knowledge-based systems is briefly reviewed and discussed. The efficiency of human-computer interaction depends to a large extent on the degree to which the human-machine interface can answer the user's cognitive needs and accurately support his or her natural cognitive processes and structures. Graphical interfaces can often be particularly suitable in this respect, especially in cases where the user's “natural idiom” is graphical. Illustrated examples are given of the way in which graphical interfaces have successfully been used in various fields with particular emphasis on their use in the field of knowledge-based systems. The paper ends with a brief discussion of possible future developments in the field of knowledge-based system interfaces and of the role that graphics might play in such developments.

Information

Type
Research Article
Information
The Knowledge Engineering Review , Volume 3 , Issue 3 , September 1988 , pp. 221 - 247
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1988

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Baecker, R M and Buxton, W A S, 1987. Readings in Human-Computer Interaction Morgan Kauffman.Google Scholar
Card, S K, Moran, T P and Newell, A, 1983. The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Carroll, J M, (Ed.), 1987. Interfacing Thought: Cognitive Aspects of Human-Computer Interaction MIT Press.Google Scholar
Coats, R B and Vlaeminke, I, 1987. Man-Computer Interfaces: An Introduction to Software Design and Implementation Blackwell Scientific Publishers.Google Scholar
Foley, J D, 1987. “Interfaces for advanced computing” Scientific American, October.Google Scholar
Foley, J D and Van Dam, A, 1982. Fundamentals of Interactive Computer Graphics Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Foley, J D, Wallace, V L and Chan, P, 1984. “The human factors of computer graphics interaction techniques” IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, November.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, M, 1986. “A survey of three dialogue models” ACM Computer Graphics 5(3).Google Scholar
Norman, D A and Draper, S W (Eds.) 1986. User Centred System Design Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanders, M S and McCormick, E J, 1987. Human Factors in Engineering and Design McGraw-Hill, 6th edition.Google Scholar
Shneiderman, B, 1987. Designing the User Interface Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Shneiderman, B, 1980. Software Psychology: Human Factors in Computer and Information Systems Winthrop.Google Scholar
Smith, S L and Mosier, J N, 1986. Guidelines for Designing User Interface Software Mitre.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tello, E, 1988. “Between man and machine” Byte September.Google Scholar
Woods, D D, 1986. “Cognitive technologies: the design of joint human-machine cognitive systems” AI Magazine 6(4).Google Scholar
Benbasat, I and Dexter, A S, 1985. “An experimental evaluation of graphical and color-enhanced information presentation” Management Science 31(11).Google Scholar
Benbasat, I, Dexter, A S and Todd, P, 1986. “The influence of color and graphical information presentation in a managerial decision simulation” Human-Computer Interaction 2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooke, J B and Duncan, K D, 1981. “Effects of system display format on performance in a fault location task” Ergonomics 24(3).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christ, R E, 1975. “Review and analysis of colour coding research for visual displays” Human Factors 17(6).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cleveland, W S and McGill, R, 1987. “Graphical perception: the visual decoding of quantitative information on graphical displays of data” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 150(3).Google Scholar
Cleveland, W S and McGill, R, 1984. “Graphical perception: theory, experimentation and application to the development of graphical methodsy” Journal of the American Statistical Association 79(387).Google Scholar
Davidoff, J, 1987. “The role of colour in visual displays”. In: International Reviews of Ergonomics, I, Osborne, D J (Ed.) Taylor and Francis.Google Scholar
Murch, G, 1984. “The effective use of color: cognitive principles” TEKniques 8(2).Google Scholar
Murch, G M, 1984. “Physiological principles for the effective use of colour” IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications November.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scrivener, S, 1983. “Perceptual factors in the design of information displays”. In: Computer Graphics '83. Online conference.Google Scholar
Tullis, T S, 1981. “An evaluation of alphanumeric, graphic and color information displays” Human Factors 23(5).Google Scholar
Tullis, T S, 1986. “Optimizing the usability of computer generated displays.” In: Proceedings of HCI'86.Google Scholar
Allen, R B, 1982. “Cognitive factors in human interaction with computers” In: Directions in Human/Computer Interaction, Badre, A and Schneiderman, B (Eds.) Ablex.Google Scholar
Gardiner, M M and Christie, B, (Eds.) 1987. Applying Cognitive Psychology to User Interface Design John Wiley.Google Scholar
Gaylin, K B, 1986. “How are windows used? some notes on creating an empirically-based windowing benchmark test” In: Proceedings CHI'86 ACM.Google Scholar
Graesser, A C, Lang, K L and Elofson, C S, 1987. “Some tools for redesigning system-operator interfaces” In: Applications of Cognitive Psychology: Problem Solving, Education and Computing, Berger, D E, Pedzek, K and Banks, W P (Eds.) Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Marshall, C, Christie, B and Gardiner, M M, 1987. “Assessment of trends in the technology and techniques of human-computer interaction” In: Applying Cognitive Psychology to User Interface Design, Gardiner, M M and Christie, B (Eds.) Wiley.Google Scholar
Marshall, C, Nelson, C and Gardiner, M M, 1987. “Design guidelines” In: Applying Cognitive Psychology to User Interface Design, Gardiner, M M and Christie, B (Eds.) Wiley.Google Scholar
Norman, D A, 1987. “Design principles for human-computer interfaces” In: Applications of Cognitive Psychology: Problem Solving, Education and Computing, Berger, D E, Pezdek, K and Banks, W P (Eds.) Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Norman, K L, Weldon, L J and Schneiderman, B, 1986. “Cognitive layout of windows and multiple screens for user interfaces” International journal of Man-Machine Studies 25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woods, D D, 1986. “Cognitive technologies: the design of joint human-machine cognitive systems” AI Magazine 6(4).Google Scholar
Barth, P S, 1986. “An object-oriented approach to graphical interfaces” ACM Transactions on Computer Graphics 5(2).Google Scholar
Benbasat, I and Dexter, A S, 1985. “An experimental evaluation of graphical and color-enhanced information presentation” Management Science 31(11).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benbasat, I, Dexter, A S and Todd, P, 1986. “The influence of color and graphical information presentation in a managerial decision simulation” Human-Computer Interaction 2.Google Scholar
Bocker, H-D, Fischer, G and Nieper, H, 1986. “The enhancement of understanding through visual representations” In: Proceedings CHI'86 ACM.Google Scholar
Bocker, H-D and Nieper, H, 1985. “Making the invisible visible: tools for exploratory programming” In: Proceedings of the 1st Pan Pacific Computer Conference.Google Scholar
Brooke, J B and Duncan, K D, 1981. “Effects of system display format on performance in a fault location task” Ergonomics 24(3).Google Scholar
Brooks, F P, 1988. “Grasping reality through illusion—interactive graphics serving science” In: CHI'88 Proceedings ACM.Google Scholar
Clemons, E K and Greenfield, A J, 1985. “The sage system architecture: a system for the rapid development of graphics interfaces for decision support” IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications November.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitter, M J and Green, T R G, 1981. “When do diagrams make good computer languages?” In: Computing Skills and the User Interface, Ally, L and Coombs, M J (Eds.) Academic Press.Google Scholar
Foley, J D and Wallace, V L, 1974. “The art of natural graphic man-machine conversation” Proceedings of the IEEE 62(4).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furnas, G W, 1986. “Generalised fisheye views” In: CHI'86 Proceedings ACM.Google Scholar
Henderson, D A and Card, S K, 1986. “Rooms: the use of multiple virtual workspaces to reduce space contention in a window-based graphical user interface” ACM Transactions on Computer Graphics 5(3).Google Scholar
Hollan, J D, Hutchins, E L, McCandless, T P, Rosenstein, M and Weitzman, L, 1987. “Graphic interfaces for simulation” Advances in Man-Machine Systems Research 3.Google Scholar
Mackinlay, J, 1986. “Automating the design of graphical presentations of relational information” ACM Computer Graphics 5(2).Google Scholar
Myers, B A, 1986. “Visual programming, programming by example and program visualisation: a taxonomy” In: Proceedings CHI'86 ACM.Google Scholar
Senach, B, 1983. “Computer-aided problem solving with graphical display of information” In: Psychology of Computer Use Academic Press.Google Scholar
Verplank, B, 1988. Tutorial given at HCI88.Google Scholar
Zdybel, F, Greenfield, N R, Yonke, M D and Gibbons, J, 1981. “An information presentation system” In: Proceedings of the 7th InternationalJoint Conference on AIAAAl.Google Scholar
Borning, A, 1986. “Defining constraints graphically” In: Human Factors in Computing Systems: Proceedings SIG-CHI'86 ACM.Google Scholar
Bryce, D and Hull, R, 1986. “Snap: a graphics-based schema manager” In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Data Engineering.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clemons, E K and Greenfield, A J, 1985. “The sage system architecture: a system for the rapid development of graphics interfaces for decision support” IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications November.Google Scholar
Delisle, N and Schwartz, M, 1986. “Neptune: a hypertext system for cad applications” In: Proceedings of ACM SIGMOID'86.Google Scholar
Eisenstadt, M and Brayshaw, M, 1988. “Aorta: diagrams as an aid to visualising the execution of prolog programs” In: Graphics Tools for Software Engineering, Kilgour, A C and Earnshaw, R A (Eds.) BCS Documentation and Displays Group.Google Scholar
Feiner, S, 1985. “Apex: an experiment in the automated creation of pictorial explanations” IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications November.Google Scholar
Frasson, C and Er-radi, M, 1986. “Principles of an icons-based command language” In: Proceedings ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glinert, E P and Tanimoto, S L, 1984. “Pict: and interactive graphical programming environment” IEEE Computer 17(11).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldman, K J, Goldman, S A, Kannelakis, P C and Zdonik, S B, 1985. “Isis: interface for a semantic information system” In: Proceedings of the ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data.Google Scholar
Green, T R G, 1982. “Pictures of programs and other processes, or how to do things with lines” Behaviour and Information Technology 1(1).Google Scholar
Halbert, D C, 1984. Programming by Example PhD thesis, Computer Science Division, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Hollan, J D, Hutchins, E L and Weitzman, L, 1984. “Steamer: an interactive inspectable simulation-based training system” AI Magazine 5(2).Google Scholar
Knapp, B G, Moses, F L and Gellman, L H, 1982. “Information highlighting on complex displays” In: Directions in Human/Computer Interaction, Badre, A and Shneiderman, B (Eds.) Ablex.Google Scholar
Pietrzykowski, T, Matwin, S and Muldner, T, 1983. “The programming language prograph: yet another application of graphics” In: Graphics Interface '83.Google Scholar
Reid, P, 1988. “Dynamic interactive display of complex data structures” In: Graphics Tools for Software Engineering, Kilgour, A C and Earnshaw, R A (Eds.) BCS Documentation and Displays Group.Google Scholar
Ripka, W, 1988. “Computers picture the perfect drug” New Scientist, June.Google Scholar
Rueher, M, Thomas, M-C, Gubert, A and Ladret, D, 1986. “A prolog based graphical approach for knowledge expression” Microsoftware for Engineers 24(4).Google Scholar
Shneiderman, B, Mayer, R, McKay, D and Heller, P, 1977. “Experimental investigations of the utility of detailed flowcharts in programming” Communications of the ACM 20(6).Google Scholar
Vose, G M and Williams, G, 1988. “Labview: laboratory virtual instrument engineering workbench” Byte September.Google Scholar
Yasdi, R, 1985. “A conceptual design aid environment for expert-database systems” Data and Knowledge Engineering.Google Scholar
Zhang, Z and Mendelzon, A O, 1983. “A graphical query language for entity relationship databases” In: Entity Relationship Approach to Software Engineering, Davis, C G, Jahodia, S, Ng, P A and Yeh, R T (Eds.) Elsevier.Google Scholar
Black, W J, 1986. Intelligent Knowledge Based Systems: An Introduction Van Nostrand Reinhold.Google Scholar
Brachman, R J and Levesque, H J (Eds.) 1985. Readings in Knowledge Representation Morgan Kaufmann.Google Scholar
Buchanan, B G and Duda, R O,1982. Principles of Rule-Based Systems Technical Report, Stanford University Heuristic Programming Project, HPP-82–14.Google Scholar
Diaper, D, 1988. “The promise of pomess: a people oriented methodology for expert system specification” In: Human and Organisational Issues of Expert Systems May.Google Scholar
Hayes-Roth, F, 1985. “Rule-based systems” Communications of the ACM 28(9).Google Scholar
Hoffman, R R, 1987. “The problem of extracting the knowledge of experts from the perspective of experimental psychology” AI Magazine.Google Scholar
Jackson, P, 1986. Introduction to Expert Systems Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Sell, P S, 1985. Expert Systems—A Practical Introduction Macmillan.Google Scholar
Shadbolt, N and Burton, M, 1987. “Tutorial on knowledge elicitation” Course material, 1987. Department of Psychology, University of Nottingham.Google Scholar
Thompson, B A and Thompson, W A, 1985. “Inside an expert system” Byte April.Google Scholar
Welbank, M, “A review of knowledge acquisition techniques” British Telecom Memorandum R19/022/83.Google Scholar
Badler, N I and Finin, T W, 1985. “Computer graphics and expert systems” IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications 5(11).Google Scholar
Baroff, J, Simon, R, Gilman, F and Shneiderman, B, 1988. “Direct manipulation user interfaces for expert systems” In: Expert Systems: The User interface, Hendler, A (Ed.) Ablex.Google Scholar
Berry, D C and Broadbent, D E, 1986. “Expert systems and the man-machine interface” Expert Systems 3(4).Google Scholar
Dodson, D C, 1988. “Interaction with knowledge systems through connection diagrams: please adjust your diagrams” In: Proceedings Expert Systems '88 (to appear).Google Scholar
Dodson, D C, 1987. “Interaction with knowledge systems through structure diagrams: perspectives and problems” In: Abridged Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction.Google Scholar
Freiling, M J and Alexander, J H, 1984. “Diagrams and grammars: tools for mass-producing expert systems” In: Proceedings of the 1st Conference on AI Applications IEEE.Google Scholar
Carnegie Group, 1986. “Language craft version 3.1” Sales literature.Google Scholar
Hayes, P J, 1988. “Using a knowledge base to drive an expert system interface with a natural language component” In: Expert Systems: The User Interface, Hendler, J A (Ed.) Ablex.Google Scholar
Hendler, J A, (Ed.) 1988. Expert Systems: The User Interface Ablex.Google Scholar
Hendler, J A and Lewis, C, 1988. “Designing interfaces for expert systems” In: Expert Systems: The User Interface, Hendler, J A (Ed.) Ablex.Google Scholar
Kearney, P J and Hunt, B, 1987. A Graphical Aid to IKBS Program Development Technical Report, IKBS Group BAe, Preston.Google Scholar
Kidd, A L. Description of r19.1.2's alvey proposal entitled “graphics interface for expert systems project” R19.1.2. Group Memorandum 84/7, British Telecom.Google Scholar
Kidd, A L and Cooper, M B, 1983. “Man-machine interface for an expert system” In: Proceedings of Expert Systems'83 BCS Expert Systems Special Interest Group.Google Scholar
Lane, C D, Differding, J C and Shortliffe, E H, 1985. Graphical Access to Medical Expert Systems: II Design of an Interface for Physicians Technical Report, Stanford Knowledge Systems Laboratory. KSL-85–15.Google Scholar
Lehner, P E and Kralj, M M, 1988. “Cognitive impacts of the user interface” In: Expert Systems: The User Interface, Hendler, J A (Ed.) Ablex.Google Scholar
Lewis, J W, 1986. “The inference machine laboratory: graphic tools for knowledge management” In: Proceedings Graphics and Vision Interface '86.Google Scholar
McAleese, R, 1987. “The graphical representation of knowledge as an interface to knowledge based systems” In: Aspects of Educational technology, volume 22, Methias, H and Budget, R (Eds.) Kogan Page.Google Scholar
Musen, M A, Fagan, L M and Shortliffe, E H, 1986. Graphical Specification of Procedural Knowledge for an Expert System. Technical Report, IEEE Computer Society. Reprinted from the 1986 Computer Society Workshop on Visual Languages.Google Scholar
Poltrock, S E, Steiner, D D and Nong Tarlton, P, 1986. “Graphic interfaces for knowledge-based system development” In: Proceedings CHI'86 ACM.Google Scholar
Richer, M H and Clancey, W J, 1985. “Guidon-watch: a graphic interface for viewing a knowledge based system” IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications 5(1).Google Scholar
Seifert, K and Rawlings, C, 1988. GRIPE: A Graphical Interface to a Knowledge Based System which Reasons About Protein Topology Technical Report, Imperial Cancer Research Fund. Paper presented at HCI88.Google Scholar
Shneiderman, B, 1988. “Series editor's preface” In: Expert Systems: The User Interface, Hendler, J A (Ed.) Ablex.Google Scholar
Stelzner, M and Williams, M D, 1988. “The evolution of interface requirements for expert systems” In: Expert Systems: The User Interface, Hendler, J A (Ed.) Ablex.Google Scholar
Tsuji, S and Shortliffe, E H, 1983. Graphical Access to the Knowledge Base of a Medical Consultation System Technical Report HPP-83–6, Stanford Heuristic Programming Project.Google Scholar
Tsuji, S and Shortliffe, E H, 1985. Graphics for Knowledge Engineers: A Window on Knowledge Base Management. Technical Report, Stanford Knowledge Systems Laboratory. KSL-85–11.Google Scholar
Woods, D D, 1986. “Paradigms for intelligent decision support” In: Intelligent Decision Support in Process Environments, Hollnagel, E (Ed.) Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Digital Equipment Corporation, 1988. Nexpert Object: Expert System Development for the VMS Operating System Environment Sales literature.Google Scholar
GEC Research, 1988. STRATA Sales literature.Google Scholar
Bobrow, D G and Stefik, M, 1983. The LOOPS Manual Xerox Corporation.Google Scholar
du Boulay, B, 1987. “Poplog for beginners: a powerful environment for learning programming” In: Artificial Intelligence Programming Environments, Hawley, R (Ed.) Ellis Horwood.Google Scholar
Fairchild, K and Poltrock, S, 1986. SemNet Technical Report HI-104–86, MCC. Video.Google Scholar
Freiling, M J and Alexander, J H, 1984. “Diagrams and grammars: tools for mass-producing expert systems” In: Proceedings of the 1st Conference on AI ApplicationsIEEE.Google Scholar
Gittins, M, 1987. “Loops: a multi-paradigm environment” In: Artificial Intelligence Programming Environments, Hawley, R (Ed.) Ellis Horwood.Google Scholar
Carnegie Group, 1987. “Knowledge craft overview” Technical brief.Google Scholar
Hasemer, T, 1987. “Lisp programming” In: Artificial Intelligence Programming Environments, Hawley, R (Ed.) Ellis Horwood.Google Scholar
Hawley, R (Ed.) 1987. Artificial Intelligence Programming Environments Ellis Horwood.Google Scholar
Kunz, J C, Kehler, T P and Williams, M D, 1987. “Applications development using a hybrid ai development system” In: Artificial Intelligence Programming Environments, Hawley, R (Ed.) Ellis Horwood.Google Scholar
Mettrey, W, 1987. “An assessment of tools for building large knowledge-based systems” AI Magazine.Google Scholar
Morgan, T, 1987. “An overview of tools and languages” In: Proceedings of KBS '87 Online Publications.Google Scholar
Motta, E, Eisenstadt, M, West, M, Pitman, K and Evertsz, R, 1986. KEATS: The Knowledge Engineer's Assistant. Final Project Report Technical Report 20, Human Cognition Research Labs.Google Scholar
Pepper, J and Kahn, G, 1986. Knowledge Craft: An Environment for Rapid Prototyping of Expert Systems Technical Report, Carnegie Group Inc.Google Scholar
GEC Research, 1987. “An introduction to the strata ai toolkit” reference Y/295/4813.Google Scholar
Richer, M H, 1985. Evaluating the Existing Tools for Developing Knowledge-Based Systems. Technical Report, Stanford Knowledge Systems Laboratory. KSL 85–19.Google Scholar
Shearer, C, 1987. “Kee and poplog: alternative approaches to developing major knowledge based systems” In: Proceedings of KBS'87 Online Publications.Google Scholar
Stefik, M, Bobrow, D G, Mittal, S and Conway, L, 1983. “Knowledge programming in loops: report on an experimental course” AI Magazine.Google Scholar
Atkinson, R L, Atkinson, R C, Smith, E E and Hilgard, E R, 1987. Introduction to Psychology Harcourt, Brace and Jovonich, 9th edition.Google Scholar
Bainbridge, L, 1988. “Types of representation” In: Tasks, Errors and Mental Models, Goodstein, L P, Andersen, H B and Olsen, S E (Eds.) Taylor and Francis.Google Scholar
Bareiss, E R and Porter, B W, 1987. A Survey of Psychological Models of Concept Representation. Technical Report, Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, The University of Texas at Austin. AI TR87–50.Google Scholar
Borning, A, 1981. “The programming language aspects of thinglab; a constraint-oriented simulation laboratory” Transactions on Programming Language and Systems 3(4).Google Scholar
Borning, A, 1979. Thinglab—A Constraint-Oriented Simulation Laboratory Technical Report, Xerox Palo Alto Research Centre. SSL-79–3.Google Scholar
Brooks, R E, 1980. “Studying programmer behaviour experimentally: the problems of proper methodology” Communications of the ACM 23(4).Google Scholar
Chapanis, A, 1967. “The relevance of laboratory studies to practical situations” Ergonomics 10(5).Google Scholar
Conklin, J, 1987. “Hypertext: an introduction and survey” IEEE Computer September.Google Scholar
Foley, J, 1986. “Guest editor's introduction to the special issue on user interface software” ACM Transactions on Computer Graphics 5(3).Google Scholar
Galambos, J A, Abelson, R P and Black, J B, 1986. Knowledge Structures Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Harel, D, 1988. “On visual formalisms” Communications of the ACM 31(5).Google Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P N and Wason, P C (Eds.) 1977. Thinking: Reading in Cognitive Science Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kearney, P J and Hunt, B, 1987. A Graphical Aid to IKBS Program Development Technical Report, IKBS Group, BAe, Preston.Google Scholar
Kiss, G and Pinder, R, 1986. “The use of complexity theory in evaluating interfaces” In: Proceedings of HCI '86 BCS HCI Special Interest Group.Google Scholar
Livingstone, M S, 1988. “Art, illusion and the visual system” Scientific American January.Google Scholar
Mackinlay, J, 1986. “Automating the design of graphical presentations of relational information” ACM Computer Graphics 5(2).Google Scholar
Mackinlay, J, 1983. Intelligent Presentation: The Generation Problem for User Interfaces Technical Report, Stanford University Heuristic Programming Project. HPP-83–34 (thesis proposal).Google Scholar
MacLean, A, Barnard, P and Hammond, N, 1984. “Recall as an indicant of performance in interactive systems” In: Human-Computer Interaction—Interact '84, Shackel, B (Ed.) Eisevier Science Publishers.Google Scholar
Myers, B A and Buxton, W, 1986. “Creating highly interactive and graphical user interfaces by demonstration” ACM Computer Graphics 20(4).Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D E, Smolensky, P, McClelland, J L and Hinton, G E, 1986. “Schemata and sequential thought processes in pdp models” In: Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition, Vol. 2: Psychological and Biological Models, McClelland, J L, Rumelhart, D E and the PDP Research Group (Eds.) MIT Press.Google Scholar
Shephard, R N and Metzler, J, 1977. “Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects” In: Thinking, Reading in Cognitive Science, Johnson-Laird, P N and Wason, P C (Eds.) CUP.Google Scholar
Tamassia, R, Batini, C and Di Battista, G, 1988. “Automatic graph drawing and readability of diagrams” IEEE Transactions on System, Man and Cybernetics To appear.Google Scholar
Winograd, T, 1977. “Formalisms for knowledge” In: Thinking, Readings in Cognitive Science, Johnson-Laird, P N and Wason, P C (Eds.) CUP.Google Scholar
Wright, P and Reid, F, 1973. “Written information: some alternatives to prose for expressing the outcomes of complex contingencies” Journal of Applied Psychology 57(2).Google Scholar