1. Introduction
Global international student mobility necessitates re-envisioning instructional practices to accommodate the learning needs of the growing number of international students on university campuses. In response to this trend, Canadian post-secondary institutions have established English for Academic Purposes (EAP) programs, which provide students with language training before they begin their academic studies in English-medium institutions (EMI). The language training programs aim to equip students with the language and academic skills necessary for their disciplinary studies, as insufficient language proficiency can disadvantage international students, resulting in lower academic achievement (da Silva et al., Reference da Silva, Zakzanis, Henderson and Ravindran2017) and difficulties in adapting socially to a new learning environment (Zhou & Zhang, Reference Zhou and Zhang2014).
Strong literacy skills and vocabulary knowledge are identified as predictors of academic achievement among second language learners (Masrai & Milton, Reference Masrai and Milton2021; Trenkic & Warmington, Reference Trenkic and Warmington2019). Specifically, vocabulary knowledge was found to be a determining factor in students' reading comprehension (Qian & Schedl, Reference Qian and Schedl2004; Schmitt et al., Reference Schmitt, Jiang and Grabe2011), listening comprehension (Stæhr, Reference Stæhr2009), speaking (Hilton, Reference Hilton2008), writing (Stæhr, Reference Stæhr2008), as well as overall language proficiency (Qian & Lin, Reference Qian, Lin and Webb2020). As EAP students progress to their academic studies, they are expected to engage with academic texts in their disciplines and produce written and spoken assignments, which require an extensive vocabulary repertoire (Nation, Reference Nation2006). The length of study in EAP programs is time-constrained, as some EAP students are conditionally admitted into their disciplinary programs and must meet the language proficiency requirement to start university studies. The time constraints imposed by the program's length require that the language curriculum is designed to provide learners with ample opportunities to develop their language proficiency efficiently and purposefully.
To make EAP study more purposeful, EAP programs need to prioritize enhancing and expanding learners' vocabulary knowledge; yet, in practice, vocabulary is often viewed as a by-product of language learning and is relegated to language courses focusing on receptive skills. The instructional sequence for vocabulary teaching in the EAP course often includes the presentation of the target vocabulary by either a teacher or a student, the completion of teacher- or student-initiated in-class or self-directed practice activities, which then culminate with the completion of the vocabulary knowledge check. During the vocabulary check, students need to demonstrate their ability to recognize or use target words.
The pedagogical need to make vocabulary instruction more purposeful and to offer ample practice opportunities prompted a redesign of the instructional sequence for the EAP course. This redesign incorporates the Schema of a Complete Orienting Basis of Action (SCOBA) as a mediational tool to enhance peer-to-peer interaction and provide both students and instructors with feedback during vocabulary learning.
2. Literature review
The SCOBA is a foundational component of the Systemic Theoretical Instruction (STI) model proposed by Gal'perin (Reference Gal'perin1989, Reference Galperin1992; Lantolf & Poehner, Reference Lantolf and Poehner2014) and is part of the pedagogical approach of concept-based instruction (C-BI) grounded in sociocultural theory and the principles of Vygotskian concept development (Lantolf & Esteve, Reference Lantolf, Esteve, Sato and Loewen2019). In second language research, scholars (Hadidi, Reference Hadidi2021; Lantolf & Zhang, Reference Lantolf, Zhang, Loewen and Sato2017; Tsujihara, Reference Tsujihara2022; White et al., Reference White, Gánem-Gutiérrez and Schulze2021) have foregrounded the use of this pedagogical approach, which is termed in the research literature as concept-based language instruction (C-BLI). Within this pedagogical approach, SCOBAs function as mediational tools fundamental to instruction that contribute to building conceptual understanding through enacting activities in the learners' Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Drawing on Vygtosky's belief in the dialectical relationship between learning and development (Reference Vygotsky1987), Negueruela (Reference Negueruela, Lantolf and Poehner2008) contends that while learning and development are distinct processes, they are dialectically united and language learning occurs when learners build and internalize a conceptual understanding of the second language. This process of developing conceptual understanding can be facilitated by the use of a model, diagram or schema (Leontjev & deBoer, Reference Leontjev and deBoer2022).
Building on Galperin's (Reference Galperin1992) system of stage-by-stage formation of the mental actions, as outlined in the Systemic-Theoretical Instruction (STI) model, Negueruela (Reference Negueruela2003) proposed a pedagogical approach aimed at enhancing conceptual understanding and facilitating effective learning. This approach, informed by STI principles, comprises three distinct steps. First, it involves identifying the pedagogical units of analysis that serve as the foundation for teaching and learning. Second, the approach emphasizes the materialization of the subject matter through various instructional aids, such as charts or tangible objects. Finally, the third step entails verbalizing explanations. Negueruela's research revealed that presenting concepts and verbalizing explanations significantly mediated students' learning experiences. Ohta (Reference Ohta2017) underscores the instructional value of the SCOBA in facilitating language instruction, cautioning, however, that educators must have a solid understanding of concepts before introducing the SCOBA to learners. The author advocates for an iterative approach to SCOBA introduction, suggesting the following steps: understanding students' conceptual understanding of the material, introducing the SCOBA and guiding students through tasks utilizing the SCOBA, thereby fostering interaction conducive to internalization. For vocabulary instruction, this pedagogical approach stipulates that learners will need to go beyond mere memorization of vocabulary by developing “rule-of-thumb knowledge” (Lantolf, Reference Lantolf and Chapelle2012, p. 4) and, instead, develop an understanding of the underlying concepts and structures of the language that will help them build vocabulary knowledge.
3. Proposed instructional sequence design
Drawing on Vygotsky's metaphor of a “teacher as a creator of a learner development”(Leontjev & DeBoer, Reference Leontjev and deBoer2022, p. 1) and “the director of the social environment” (Vygotsky, Reference Vygotsky1997, p. 229 as cited in Leontjev & deBoer, Reference Leontjev and deBoer2022, p. 5), the proposed instructional sequence aims to create opportunities for student–instructor and peer-to-peer interaction, peer and instructor feedback, and reflection on vocabulary learning to promote vocabulary development. This instructional sequence will consist of several stages.
During the initial stage, the learners and instructors will identify the target vocabulary to be learned. To assist in this process, learners will be equipped with tools like the Academic Word Highlighter and frequency word lists, enabling them to make informed decisions about word selection. The selection of the target vocabulary will be informed by whether the word is high-frequency, academic or discipline-specific.
During the second stage of the instruction sequence, the learners will be introduced to the SCOBA, a schematic representation of the depth of word knowledge adapted from the taxonomy of the aspects of vocabulary knowledge proposed by Nation (Reference Nation2022). The SCOBA includes three broad categories, each consisting of three distinct aspects of word knowledge, namely: Form (spoken, written, word parts), Meaning (meaning in context, cultural referents, word associations) and Use (grammatical functions, collocations, constraints on word use). Learners' productive and receptive abilities in all nine aspects of the target word contribute to the depth of knowledge about the word and indicate learners' mastery of it. Learners will first work individually to assess their knowledge of the word's Form, Meaning and Use by answering guiding questions from the SCOBA and marking their level of knowledge about each category. Learners will also mark the translation of the word into their first language, since retrieving vocabulary from the first language provides learners with the fastest link to understanding word meaning. Once learners identify their level of knowledge about different aspects of the target word, they will work in pairs to collaboratively complete the SCOBA for the target word. By completing this activity, learners can interactively co-construct their ZPD and build their knowledge of the word through verbalizing or “languaging” (Swain et al., Reference Swain, Lapkin, Knouzi, Suzuki and Brooks2009). The instructor will mediate students' learning by identifying the Zone of Actual Development, modelling SCOBA completion, providing opportunities for peer-to-peer interaction and feedback, providing instructor feedback and directing learning to additional instructional resources and activities that will contribute to facilitating vocabulary development.
As a culmination of this instructional sequence, the learners will complete instructional tasks designed to apply various aspects of word knowledge in new contexts, thereby demonstrating enhanced vocabulary proficiency.
4. Conclusion and future directions
Using the SCOBA as a mediational tool for enhancing students' learning of new vocabulary can have multiple benefits. First, the SCOBA fosters second language development by orienting students' learning efforts; it provides opportunities for interaction, co-construction of meaning and building knowledge through “languaging” (Swain et al., Reference Swain, Lapkin, Knouzi, Suzuki and Brooks2009). Second, the learners can use their first language as a stepping stone in the conceptualization process and exercise their agency in the learning process. Third, the use of the SCOBA has transformative potential for learners' understanding of the concept of vocabulary knowledge, as their learning and development go from being regulated by the mediating tool (SCOBA) to being regulated by others (peers and instructor) and, ultimately, by themselves (self-regulation). Fourth, the learners are likely to internalize the knowledge about the word as they will have multiple exposures to the target word through additional activities and more time on task to construct the facets of the word knowledge with their peers and the instructor.
In conclusion, while the proposed instructional sequence utilizing the SCOBA as a mediational tool shows promising potential for enhancing vocabulary learning, further research is warranted to explore its efficacy and the potential differential effects on learners' vocabulary knowledge. Future studies could employ experimental designs to compare the outcomes of vocabulary instruction with and without SCOBA implementation across diverse learner populations. Additionally, qualitative studies could provide valuable insights into students’ experiences of vocabulary instruction using the SCOBA. Future research can contribute to a deeper understanding of the role of mediational tools in vocabulary instruction practices and the support needed to enhance students' vocabulary development.
Supplementary material
The supplementary material for this article can be found at https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444824000247.
