Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T05:45:53.410Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Ancient Settlement, Urban Gardening, and Environment in the Gulf Lowlands of Mexico

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Barbara L. Stark  and
Alanna Ossa
Barbara L. Stark
Affiliation:
School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287 (blstark@asu.edu)
Alanna Ossa
Affiliation:
School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287 (aeossa@asu.edu)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Urban settlement in the western lower Papaloapan River basin in the Gulf lowlands was dispersed and likely employed intensive gardening near domiciles. Land surrounding homes also may have played a symbolic role in these agrarian societies. Water works—formal ponds associated with temple platforms and other prominent structures as well as with many residential mounds—support the idea of symbolic as well as practical functions in land use around buildings. Dispersed occupation occurs in low elevations suited to recessional planting, a technique that takes advantage of dry season ground moisture in low areas where rain and flood waters recede as the water table drops. We analyze elevational zones to show greater settlement density in the low-lying Blanco River delta than in higher elevations upriver. Analysis of distances between archaeological residences and wetlands and drainages shows that residences generally were close to seasonally flooded areas. We also highlight anthropogenic qualities in the alluvial landscape, offering a land use perspective distinct from other views of agricultural intensification. The settlement pattern is compatible with Mesoamerican forms of urbanism.

Resumen

Resumen

Los asentamientos urbanos en la cuenca oeste del bajo Río Papaloapan en la planicie del golfo eran dispersos y probablemente con horticultura residencial intensiva; siendo probable que los terrenos cercanos a las casas tuvieron además un papel simbólico. Elementos para el manejo del agua—los aljibes adyacentes a las plataformas de templos y otras estructuras prominentes, como a montículos residenciales—apoyan la interpretación tanto simbólica como práctica del uso de la tierra alrededor de los edificios. La ocupación dispersa ocurre en lugares de poca elevación favorables para las siembras de retroceso, una técnica que utiliza la tierra húmeda de terrenos bajos cuando las lluvias y las inundaciones estacionales disminuyen y el nivel freático desciende. Nuestro estudio de elevaciones revela mayor densidad de asentamientos en los terrenos bajos del delta del río Blanco que río arriba. Y el de las distancias entre las residencias y los bajos y drenajes que las primeras están generalmente más cerca de los zonas estacionalmente inundables. También destacamos las cualidades antropogénicas del paisaje aluvional, presentando una perspectiva distinta de la intensificación agrícola. El patrón de asentamiento del área es compatible con las formas mesoamericanas del urbanismo.

Type
Articles
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 18 , Issue 4 , December 2007 , pp. 385 - 406
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2007

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Adams, Abigail E., and Brady, James E. 2005 Ethnographic Notes on Maya Q’eqchi’ Cave Rites: Implications for Archaeological Interpretation. In In the Maw of the Earth Monster: Mesoamerican Ritual Cave Use, edited by James E. Brady and Keith M. Prufer, pp. 301–327. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Baker, Jeffrey L. 2007 The Wet or the Dry?: Agricultural Intensification in the Maya Lowlands. In Seeking a Richer Harvest: The Archaeology of Subsistence Intensification, Innovation, and Change, edited by Tina L. Thurston and Christopher T. Fisher, pp. 63–90. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Ball, Joseph W., and Kelsay, Richalene G. 1992 Prehistoric Intrasettlement Land Use and Residual Soil Phosphate Levels in the Upper Belize Valley, Central America. In Gardens of Prehistory: The Archaeology of Settlement Agriculture in Greater Mesoamerica, edited by Thomas W. Killion, pp. 234–262. The University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Bender, Barbara 1999 Introductory Comments. Antiquity 73:632–634.Google Scholar
Blanton, Richard E. 1976 Anthropological Studies of Cities. Annual Review of Anthropology 5:249–264.Google Scholar
Brady, James E., and Ashmore, Wendy 1999 Mountains, Caves, Water: Ideational Landscapes of the Ancient Maya. In Archaeologies of Landscape, edited by Wendy Ashmore and A. Bernard Knapp, pp. 124–145. Blackwell Publishers Ltd, Maiden, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Brookfield, Harold II 1984 Intensification Revisited. Pacific Viewpoint 25:15–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brookfield, Harold II 2001 Intensification, and Alternative Approaches to Agricultural Change. Asia Pacific Viewpoint 42:181–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruder, Simon J. 1977 Vegetation Patterning. In Prehistoric Ecology at Patarata 52, Veracruz, Mexico: Adaptation to the Mangrove Swamp, edited by Barbara L. Stark, pp. 22–28. Vanderbilt University, Nashville.Google Scholar
Calnek, Edward E. 1972 Settlement Pattern and Chinampa Agriculture at Tenochtitlan. American Antiquity 37:107–115.Google Scholar
Chase, Arlen F., and Chase, Diane Z. 1987 Investigations at the Classic Maya City of Caracal, Belize: 1985–1987. Monograph 3. Pre-Columbian Art Research Institute, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Chase, Arlen F., and Chase, Diane Z. 1998 Scale and Intensity in Classic Period Maya Agriculture: Terracing and Settlement at the “Garden City” of Caracol, Belize. Culture and Agriculture 20 2:60–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coe, Michael D., and Diehl, Richard A. 1980 In the Land of the Olmec, Vol. 2, The People of the River. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Coffin, David R. 1991 Gardens and Gardening in Papal Rome. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Colvin, Howard M. 1983 Royal Gardens in Medieval England. In Medieval Gardens, pp. 7–22. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Cooper, Mary Palmer 1984 The Early English Kitchen Garden. Trinity Press, Nashville.Google Scholar
Culbert, T. Patrick, Kosakowsky, Laura J., Fry, Robert E., and Haviland, William A. 1990 The Population of Tikal, Guatemala. In Precolumbian Population History in the Maya Lowlands, edited by T. Patrick Culbert and Don S. Rice, pp. 103–121. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Daneels, Annick 1997 Settlement History in the Lower Cotaxtla Basin. In Olmec to Aztec: Settlement Patterns in the Ancient Gulf Lowlands, edited by Barbara L. Stark and Philip J. Arnold, III, pp. 206–252. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Daneels, Annick, Flores, Fabio, Ibarra, Emilio, and Zolá, Manuel 2005 Paleoagriculture on the Gulf Coast. In Gulf Coast Archaeology: The Southeastern United States and Mexico, edited by Nancy Marie White, pp. 205–222. University Press of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Denevan, William M. 1996 A Bluff Model of Riverine Settlement in Prehistoric Amazonia. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 86:654–681.Google Scholar
Denevan, William M. 2001 Cultivated Landscapes of Native Amazonia and the Andes. Oxford University Press, Inc., New York.Google Scholar
Dommelen, Peter van 1999 Exploring Everday Places and Cosmologies. In Archaeologies of Landscape, edited by Wendy Ashmore and A. Bernard Knapp, pp. 277–285. Blackwell Publishers Ltd, Maiden.Google Scholar
Drennan, Robert D. 1988 Household Location and Compact Versus Dispersed Settlement in Prehispanic Mesoamerica. In Household and Community in the Mesoamerican Past, edited by Richard A. Wilk and Wendy Ashmore, pp. 273–293. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Dunning, Nicholas P. 1992 Lords of the Hills: Ancient Maya Settlement in the Puuc Region, Yucatán, Mexico. Monographs in World Archaeology 15. Prehistory Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Dunning, Nicholas P. 1996 A Reexamination of Regional Variability in the Prehistoric Agricultural Landscape. In The Managed Mosaic: Ancient Maya Agriculture and Resource Use, edited by Scott L. Fedick, pp. 53–68. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City Google Scholar
Dunning, Nicholas, Beach, Timothy, Farrell, Pat, and Luzzadder-Beach, Sheryl 1998 Prehispanic Agrosystems and Adaptive Regions in the Maya Lowlands. Culture and Agriculture 20:87–101.Google Scholar
Dunning, Nicholas P., Luzzadder-Beach, Sheryl, Beach, Timothy, Jones, John G., Scarborough, Vernon, and Patrick Culbert, T. 2002 Arising from the Bajos: The Evolution of a Neotropical Landscape and the Rise of Maya Civilization. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 92:267–283.Google Scholar
Evans, Susan Toby 1992 The Productivity of Maguey Terrace Agriculture in Central Mexico during the Aztec Period. In Gardens in Prehistory: The Archaeology of Settlement Agriculture in Greater Mesoamerica, edited by Thomas W. Killion, pp. 92–115. The University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Evans, Susan Toby 2000 Aztec Royal Pleasure Parks: Conspicuous Consumption and Elite Status Rivalry. Studies in the History of Gardens and Designed Landscapes 20:206–228.Google Scholar
Fedick, Scott L. 1996 Conclusion: Landscape Approaches to the Study of Ancient Maya Agriculture and Resource Use. In The Managed Mosaic: Ancient Maya Agriculture and Resource Use, edited by Scott L. Fedick, pp. 335–347. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Fedick, Scott L. (editor) 1996 The Managed Mosaic: Ancient Maya Agriculture and Resource Use. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Feinman, Gary M. 1999 Defining aContemporary Landscape Approach: Concluding Thoughts. Antiquity 73:684–685.Google Scholar
Fisher, Christopher T., and Feinman, Gary M. 2005 Introduction to “Landscapes over Time.” American Anthropologist 107:62–69.Google Scholar
Fisher, Christopher T., and Thurston, Tina L. 1999 Special Section: Dynamic Landscapes and Sociopolitical Process: The Topography of Anthropogenic Environments in Global Perspective. Antiquity 73:630–631.Google Scholar
Fishman, Robert 1992 The American Garden City: Still Relevant? In The Garden City: Past, Present, and Future, edited by Stephen V. Ward, pp. 146–164. E & FN Spon, London.Google Scholar
Flannery, Kent V. 1983 Precolumbian Farming in the Valleys of Oaxaca, Nochixtlan, Tehuacan, and Cuicatlan: A Comparative Study. In The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, pp. 323–339. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Folan, William J., Fletcher, Laraine A., and Kintz, Ellen R. 1979 Fruit, Fiber, Bark, and Resin: The Social Organization of a Maya Urban Center: Coba, Quintana Roo, Mexico. Science 204:697–701.Google Scholar
Fox, Richard G. 1977 Urban Anthropology: Cities in Their Cultural Settings. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.Google Scholar
Angkor Project, Greater 2003 Redefining Angkor: Structure and Environment in the Largest Low Density Urban Complex of the Pre-Industrial World. Journal of Khmer Studies, Udaya 4:107–125.Google Scholar
Garraty, Christopher P., and Stark, Barbara L. 2002 Imperial and Social Relations in Postclassic South-central Veracruz, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 13:3–33.Google Scholar
Gutiérrez Mendoza, Gerardo 2003 Territorial Structure and Urbanism in Mesoámerica: The Huaxtec and Mixtec-Tlapanec-Nahua Cases. In El Urbanismo en Mesoamérica: Urbanism in Mesoamerica, vol. 1, edited by William T. Sanders, Alba Guadalupe Mastache, and Robert H. Cobean, pp. 85–115. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia and The Pennsylvania State University, Mexico, D.F. and University Park.Google Scholar
Hall, Barbara A. 1994 Formation Processes of Large Earthen Residential Mounds in La Mixtequilla, Veracruz, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 5:31–50.Google Scholar
Hanaway, William L. Jr. 1976 Paradise on Earth: the Terrestrial Garden in Persian Literature. In The Islamic Garden, edited by Elisabeth B. MacDougall and Richard Ettinghausen, pp. 41–63. Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Hardy, Dennis 1991 From Garden Cities to New Towns: Campaigning for Town and Country Planning, 1899–1946. E & FN Spon, London.Google Scholar
Heimo, Maija 1998 Prehispanic Wetland Agriculture South of Laguna Mandinga, Veracruz, Mexico: Testing Postulations of Water Management and Agricultural Intensification. Master’s thesis, Department of Geography, University of British Columbia, Vancouver.Google Scholar
Hirth, Kenneth G. 2003 The Altepetl and Urban Structure in Prehispanic Mesoamerica. In El Urbanismo en Mesoamérica: Urbanism in Mesoamerica, vol. 1, edited by William T. Sanders, Alba Guadalupe Mastache, and Robert H. Cobean, pp. 57–84. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia and The Pennsylvania State University, México, D.F. and University Park.Google Scholar
Howard, Ebenezer 1965 [1898] Garden Cities of To-morrow, edited by Frederic James Osborn. The M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. First published as Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform, 1898.Google Scholar
Hughbanks, Paul J. 1998 Settlement and Land Use at Guijarral, Northwest Belize. Culture and Agriculture 20:107–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isendahl, Christian 2002 Common Knowledge: Lowland Maya Urban Farming at Xuch. Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University and Universidad Autónoma de Campeche, Uppsala.Google Scholar
Jellicoe, Susan 1976 The Development of the Mughal Garden. In The Islamic Garden, edited by Elisabeth B. MacDougall and Richard Ettinghausen, pp. 107–129. Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Johnson, C. David, Kohler, Timothy A., and Cowan, Jason 2005 Modeling Historical Ecology, Thinking about Contemporary Systems. American Anthropologist 107:96–107.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, Kevin J. 2003 The Intensification of Pre-industrial Cereal Agriculture in the Tropics: Boserup, Cultivation Lengthening, and the Classic Maya. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 22:126–161.Google Scholar
Joyce, Arthur A., and Mueller, Raymond G. 1997 Prehispanic Human Ecology of the Río Verde Drainage Basin, Mexico. World Archaeology 29:75–94.Google Scholar
Kepecs, Susan, and Boucher, Sylviane 1996 The Pre-Hispanic Cultivation of Rejolladas and Stonelands: New Evidence from Northeast Yucatán. In The Managed Mosaic: Ancient Maya Agriculture and Resource Use, edited by Scott L. Fedick, pp. 69–91. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Keswick, Maggie 2003 The Chinese Garden: History, Art, and Architecture, revised by Alison Hardie, Contributions and Conclusions by Charles Jencks. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Kidder, Tristram R. 1998 The Rat that Ate Louisiana: Aspects of Historical Ecology in the Mississippi River Delta. In Advances in Historical Ecology, edited by William Balée, pp. 141–168. Columbia University Press, New York.Google Scholar
Killion, Thomas W. 1992 Residential Ethnoarchaeology and Ancient Site Structure: Contemporary Farming and Prehistoric Settlement Agriculture at Matacapan, Veracruz, Mexico. In Gardens in Prehistory: The Archaeology of Settlement Agriculture in Greater Mesoamerica, edited by Thomas W. Killion, pp. 119–149. The University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Killion, Thomas W., Sabloff, Jeremy A., Tourtellot, Gair, and Dunning, Nicholas 1989 Intensive Surface Collection of Residential Clusters at Terminal Classic Sayil, Yucatan, Mexico. Journal of Field Archaeology 16:273–294.Google Scholar
Knapp, A. Bernard, and Ashmore, Wendy 1999 Archaeological Landscapes: Constructed, Conceptualized, Ideational. In Archaeologies of Landscape, edited by Wendy Ashmore and A. Bernard Knapp, pp. 1–30. Blackwell Publishers Ltd, Maiden.Google Scholar
Kunen, Julie L., Patrick Culbert, T., Fialko, Vilma, McKee, Brian R., and Grazioso, Liwy 2000 Bajo Communities: A Case Study from the Central Peten. Culture and Agriculture 22:15–31.Google Scholar
Lazzaro, Claudia 1990 The Italian Renaissance Garden: From the Conventions of Planting, Design, and Ornament to the Grand Gardens of Sixteenth-Century Central Italy. Yale University Press, New Haven.Google Scholar
Lifang, Chen, and Sianglin, Yu 1986 The Garden Art of China. Timber Press, Portland.Google Scholar
Lockhart, James 1992 The Nahuas after the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth through Eighteenth Centuries. Stanford University Press, Stanford.Google Scholar
MacDougall, Elizabeth 1972 Ars Hortulorum: Sixteenth Century Garden Iconography and Literary Theory in Italy. In The Italian Garden, edited by David R. Coffin, pp. 37–59. Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Corporation, Mapinfo 1985–1997 Mapinfo Professional, version 5.0.0. One Global View, Troy.Google Scholar
Corporation, Mapinfo 1985–2001 Mapinfo Professional, version 6.5.1. One Global View, Troy.Google Scholar
Marcus, Joyce 1983 On the Nature of the Mesoamerican City. In Prehistoric Settlement Patterns: Essays in Honor of Gordon R. Willey, edited by Evon Z. Vogt and Richard M. Levanthal, pp. 195–242. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo 1987 Symbolism of the Templo Mayor. In The Aztec Templo Mayor, edited by Elizabeth Hill Boone, pp. 185–209. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Miller, Mervyn 1992 Raymond Unwin: Garden Cities and Town Planning. Leicester University Press, Leicester.Google Scholar
Miller, Naomi 1983 Paradise Regained: Medieval Garden Fountains. In Medieval Gardens, pp. 135–153. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Musset, Alain 1986 Les Jardins Préhispaniques. Trace: Travaux et Recherches dans les Ameriques du Centre 10:59–73.Google Scholar
Netting, Robert McC. 1977 Maya Subsistence: Mythologies, Analogies, Possibilities. In The Origins of Maya Civilization, edited by Richard E. W. Adams, pp. 299–333. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Norman, V. Garth 1973 Izapa Sculpture, Part 1, Album. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation 30. Brigham Young University, Provo.Google Scholar
Norman, V. Garth 1976 Izapa Sculpture, Part 2, Text. Papers of the New World Archaeological Foundation 30. Brigham Young University, Provo.Google Scholar
Orozco-Segovia, A., and Gliessman, Stephen R. 1979 The Marceño in Flood-prone Regions of Tabasco, Mexico. Paper presented at the Symposium on Mexican Agrosystems, XLVIII Congress of Americanists, Vancouver.Google Scholar
Phoenix Area Social Survey, The 2003 The Phoenix Area Social Survey: Community and Environment in a Desert Metropolis, Summary Results of the Pilot Study. Phoenix Long-term Ecological Research Contribution 2. Herberger Center for Design Excellence, College of Architecture and Environmental Design and the Center for Environmental Studies, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ. Electronic document, http://knet.asu.edu/research/?getObject=asulib: 133681, accessed September 20, 2007.Google Scholar
Pinder-Wilson, Ralph 1976 The Persian Garden: Bagh and Chakar-Bagh . In The Islamic Garden, edited by Elisabeth B. MacDougall and Richard Ettinghausen, pp. 69–85. Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Pyburn, K. Anne 2003 The Hydrology of Chau Hiix. Ancient Mesoamerica 14:123–129.Google Scholar
Rissolo, Dominique 2005 Beneath the Yalahau: Emerging Patterns of Ancient Maya Ritual Cave Use from Northern Quintana Roo, Mexico. In In the Maw of the Earth Monster: Mesoamerican Ritual Cave Use, edited by James E. Brady and Keith M. Prufer, pp. 342–372. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Sanders, William T., and Webster, David 1988 The Mesoamerican Urban Tradition. American Anthropologist 90:521–546.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 1998 Ecology and Ritual: Water Management and the Maya. Latin American Antiquity 9:135–159.Google Scholar
Schimmel, Annemarie 1976 The Celestial Garden in Islam. In The Islamic Garden, edited by Elisabeth B. MacDougall and Richard Ettinghausen, pp. 11–39. Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Siemens, Alfred H. 1983 Modeling Pre-Hispanic Hydroagriculture on Levee Backslopes in Northern Veracruz, Mexico. In Drained Field Agriculture in Central and South America, edited by Janice P. Darch, pp. 27–54. BAR International Series 189. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Siemens, Alfred H. 1990 Reducing the Risk, Some Indications Regarding Pre-Hispanic Wetland Agricultural Intensification from Contemporary Use of a Wetland/Terra Firma Boundary Zone in Central Veracruz. In Agroecology: Researching the Ecological Basis for Sustainable Agriculture, edited by Stephea R. Gliessman, pp. 233–250. Springer-Verlag, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siemens, Alfred H. 1996 Benign Flooding on Tropical Lowland Floodplains. In The Managed Mosaic: Ancient Maya Agriculture and Resource Use, edited by Scott L. Fedick, pp. 132–144. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Siemens, Alfred H. 1998 A Favored Place: San Juan River Wetlands, Central Veracruz, A.D. 500 to the Present. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Sluyter, Andrew 1994 Intensive Wetland Agriculture in Mesoamerica: Space, Time, and Form. Annals of the Association of American Geographers 84:557–584.Google Scholar
Smith, Michael E. 2003 The Aztecs, second edition. Blackwell Publishing, Maiden, Maine.Google Scholar
Smyth, Michael P., Dore, Christopher D., and Dunning, Nicholas P. 1995 Interpreting Prehistoric Settlement Patterns: Lessons from the Maya Center of Sayil, Yucatan. Journal of Field Archaeology 22:321–358.Google Scholar
Speaker, Stuart 2001 Settlement and Agricultural Land Use in Ancient La Mixtequilla, Veracruz, Mexico. Ph.D. dissertation, Tulane University, New Orleans. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Stark, Barbara L. 1999 Formal Architectural Complexes in South-central Veracruz, Mexico: A Capital Zone? Journal of Field Archaeology 26:197–225.Google Scholar
Stark, Barbara L. 2003 Cerro de las Mesas: Social and Economic Perspectives on a Gulf Center. In El Urbanismo en Mesoamerica: Urbanism in Mesoamerica, edited by Guadalupe Mas-tache and William T. Sanders, pp. 391–422. Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia and The Pennsylvania State University, México D.F. and University Park.Google Scholar
Stark, Barbara L. (editor) 2001 Classic Period Mixtequilla, Veracruz, Mexico: Diachronic Inferences from Residential Investigations. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, The University at Albany, New York.Google Scholar
Stark, Barbara L., and Hall, Barbara A. 1993 Hierarchical Social Differentiation among Late to Terminal Classic Residential Locations in La Mixtequilla, Veracruz, Mexico. In Household, Compound, and Residence: Studies of Prehispanic Domestic Units in Western Mesoamerica, edited by Robert S. Santley and Kenneth G. Hirth, pp. 249–273. CRC Press, Boca Raton.Google Scholar
Stark, Barbara L., and Antonio Curet, L. 1994 The Development of the Classic Period Mixtequilla in South-Central Veracruz, Mexico. Ancient Mesoamerica 5:267–287.Google Scholar
Stark, Barbara L., Heller, Lynette, and Ohnersorgen, Michael A. 1997 People with Cloth: Mesoamerican Economic Change from the Perspective of Cotton in South-central Veracruz. Latin American Antiquity 9:1–30.Google Scholar
Stark, Barbara L., and Ossa, Alanna 2001 The Low-down Lowlands. Paper presented at the 66th annual meetings of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Stark, Barbara L., and Ossa, Alanna 2005 Los Asentamientos Urbanos Huertos-jardines en la Planicie Costera de Veracruz. Anales de Antropología 39 1:39–50.Google Scholar
Strong, Roy 1979 The Renaissance Garden In England. Thames and Hudson, London.Google Scholar
Tabbaa, Yasser 1992 The Medieval Islamic Garden: Typology and Hydraulics. In Garden History: Issues, Approaches, Methods, pp. 303–329. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Tourtellot, Gair 1993 A View of Ancient Maya Settlements in the Eighth Century. In Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A. D., edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and John S. Henderson, pp. 219–241. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington D.C. Google Scholar
Turner, Billie Lee II 1993 Rethinking the “New Orthodoxy”: Interpreting Ancient Maya Agriculture and Environment. In Culture, Form, and Place, Essays in Cultural and Historical Geography, edited by Kent Mathewson, pp. 57–88. Geoscience and Man, vol. 32. Geoscience Publications, Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge.Google Scholar
Turner, Billie Lee II, and Sanders, William L. 1992 Summary and Critique. In Gardens in Prehistory: The Archaeology of Settlement Agriculture in Greater Mesoamerica, edited by Thomas W. Killion, pp. 263–284. The University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
Vogt, Evon Z. 1970 The Zinacantecos of Mexico: A Modern Maya Way of Life. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York.Google Scholar
Vogt, Evon Z., and Stuart, David 2005 Some Notes on Ritual Caves among the Ancient and Modern Maya. In In the Maw of the Earth Monster: Mesoamerican Ritual Cave Use, edited by James E. Brady and Keith M. Prufer, pp. 155–185. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Wilken, Gene C. 1971 Producing Systems Available to the Ancient Maya. American Antiquity 36:432–448.Google Scholar
Wilken, Gene C. 1987 Good Farmers: Traditional Agricultural Resource Management in Mexico and Central America. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Williams, Barbara J. 1994 The Archaeological Signature of Local Level Polities in Tepetlaoztoc. In Economies and Polities in the Aztec Realm, edited by Mary G. Hodge and Michael E. Smith, pp. 73–87. Institute for Mesoamerican Studies, The University of Albany, State University of New York, Albany.Google Scholar
Wing, Elizabeth S. 1980 Human-animal Relationships. In In the Land of the Olmec, Vol. 2, The People of the River, by Michael D. Coe and Richard A. Diehl, pp. 97–123. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
WinklerPrins, Antoinette M. G. A., and de Suza, Perpetuo 2005 Surviving in the City: Urban Home Gardens and the Economy of Affection in the Brazilian Amazon. Journal of Latin American Geography 4:107–126.Google Scholar
Wirth, Louis 1938 Urbanism as a Way of Life. The American Journal of Sociology 44:1–24.Google Scholar