Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-15T07:03:11.821Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Getting REDD-Y: Conservation and Climate Change in Latin America

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 September 2022

Anthony Hall
Anthony Hall*
Affiliation:
London School of Economics and Political Science
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Deforestation in Latin America, especially in the Amazon basin, is a major source of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide that contribute to global warming. Protected areas play a vital role in minimizing forest loss and in supplying key environmental services, including carbon sequestration and rainfall regulation, which mitigate the adverse impacts of climate change amid a rising tide of economic development in the region. The area of protected forest has expanded rapidly since 1980 to cover one-fifth of Latin America and more than two-fifths of Amazonia, a region whose rain forest captures some 40 percent of Latin America's carbon emissions. The reserve sector has traditionally suffered from severe underfunding, but the possibility of new resources being generated through financial compensation for “reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation” (REDD) or “avoided deforestation” under a new Kyoto protocol after 2012 could help strengthen the environmental and social roles of protected areas. However, a number of major implementation and governance challenges will need to be addressed.

Resumo

Resumo

La deforestación en América Latina, y en especial en la cuenca del Amazonas, es una fuente fundamental de gases de efecto invernadero como el dióxido de carbono que contribuyen al calentamiento global. Las áreas protegidas desempeñan un papel vital a la hora de minimizar la pérdida de territorio arbóreo y ofrecer servicios medioambientales fundamentales que incluyen la captura de carbón y la regulación pluvial con los que mitigar los impactos adversos que tiene el cambio climático en el contexto de una ola creciente de desarrollo económico en la región. El área de selva protegida se ha expandido rápidamente desde 1980 hasta cubrir una quinta parte de América Latina y más de dos quintas partes de la Amazonia, una región que captura el 40 por ciento de las emisiones de dióxido de carbono latinoamericanas. Estas reservas han sufrido tradicionalmente de una severa falta de financiación. Sin embargo, el hecho de que se hayan abierto nuevos recursos a través de compensaciones financieras ofrecidas mediante el programa de Reducción de Emisiones por Deforestación y Degradación (REDD) o por evitar la deforestación en el marco de un nuevo protocolo de Kioto tras 2012, podría ayudar a fortalecer el papel medioambiental y social de dichas áreas protegidas. Para ello, sin embargo, toda una serie de desafíos importantes a nivel de implementación y gobierno han de ser respondidos.

Type
Research Article
Information
Latin American Research Review , Volume 46 , Issue S1: Contemporary Debates on Ecology, Society, and Culture in Latin America , 2011 , pp. 184 - 210
Copyright
Copyright © 2011 by the University of Texas Press

Footnotes

Thanks are due to the London School of Economics and to the British Academy for financial support that made this research possible. The author is grateful to Marianne Schmink, the late Sandy Davis, and two anonymous LARR reviewers for valuable comments on an earlier version of this article.

References

Acre (State Government of) 2009 Política de valorização do ativo florestal: Projeto pagamento por serviços ambientais – carbono. Rio Branco: State Government of Acre.Google Scholar
Adams, William M. 2008 Green Development: Environment and Sustainability in the Third World, 2nd ed. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Aragão, Luiz Eduardo, Malhi, Yadvinder, Barbier, Nicolas, Lima, Andre, Shimabukuro, Yosio, Anderson, Liana, and Saatchi, Sassan 2008 “Interactions between Rainfall, Deforestation and Fires during Recent Years in the Brazilian Amazon.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 363 (1498): 1779–1785.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barlow, Jos, and Peres, Carlos 2008 “Fire-Mediated Dieback and Compositional Cascade in an Amazon Forest.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 363 (1498): 1787–1792.Google Scholar
Barros, Hércules 2007 “Política de preservação de florestas ameaça comunidades tradicionais.” Correio Brasiliense, June 13.Google Scholar
Bartels, Wendy-Lin 2009 “Participatory Land-Use Planning in the Brazilian Amazon: Creating Learning Networks among Farmers, NGOs and Government Institutions.” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Florida, Gainesville.Google Scholar
Bayon, Ricardo, Hawn, Amanda, and Hamilton, Katherine, eds. 2007 Voluntary Carbon Markets: An International Business Guide to What They Are and How They Work. London: Earthscan.Google Scholar
Becker, Bertha 2004 Amazônia: Geopolítica na virada do III milênio. Rio de Janeiro: Garamond.Google Scholar
Bourne, Richard 1978 Assault on the Amazon. London: Gollancz.Google Scholar
Brockington, Daniel, Duffy, Rosaleen, and Igoe, James 2008 Nature Unbound: Conservation, Capitalism and the Future of Protected Areas. London: Earthscan.Google Scholar
Brockington, Daniel, and Igoe, James 2006 “Eviction for Conservation: A Global Overview.” Conservation and Society 4 (3): 424–470.Google Scholar
Bruner, Aaron, Gullison, Raymond, Rice, Richard, and Fonseca, Gustavo da 2001 “Effectiveness of Parks in Protecting Tropical Biodiversity.” Science 291 (5501): 125–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butler, Rhett A. 2009 “Private Equity Firm Buys Rights to Ecosystem Services of Guyana Rainforest” (accessed April 4, 2011, at http://news.mongabay.com/2009/0212-amazon_wwf.html).Google Scholar
Campbell, Alison, Clark, Sarah, Coad, Lauren, Miles, Lera, Bolt, Katherine, and Roe, Dilys 2010 “Protecting the Future: Carbon Forests, Protected Areas and Local Livelihoods.” In The Earthscan Reader in Poverty and Biodiversity Conservation, edited by Roe, Dilys and Elliot, Joanna, 330–340. London: Earthscan.Google Scholar
Cenamo, Mariano, Pavan, Mariana, Campos, Marina, Barros, Ana Cristina, and Carvalho, Fernanda 2009 Casebook of REDD Projects in Latin America. Manaus: Nature Conservancy and Institute for the Conservation and Sustainable Development of Amazonas.Google Scholar
Coad, Lauren, Campbell, Alison, Miles, Lera, and Humphries, Katherine 2008 The Costs and Benefits of Forest Protected Areas for Local Livelihoods: A Review of the Current Literature. Cambridge, UK: UN Environment Programme and World Commission on Protected Areas.Google Scholar
Coomes, Oliver, Barham, Bradford, and Takasaki, Yoshito 2004 “Targeting Conservation-Development Initiatives in Tropical Forests: Insights from Analysis of Rain Forest Use and Economic Reliance among Amazonian Peasants.” Ecological Economics 51:47–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daily, Gretchen, ed. 1997 Nature's Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.Google Scholar
Datafolha 2009 A visão da população brasileira sobre desmatamento, código florestal e intenção de voto: Pesquisa de opinião. São Paulo: Datafolha and Amigos da Terra, April 29.Google Scholar
Davis, Shelton H. 2008 “Including Indigenous People's Rights, Basic Needs and Traditional Knowledge in the World Bank's Approach to Clean Energy, Climate Change and Forestry Protection in Developing Countries.” Washington, D.C.: Center for Latin American Studies, Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University.Google Scholar
Development Assistance Committee, Development and Cooperation Directorate 2009 Aid Statistics. Brussels: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.Google Scholar
Ebeling, Johannes, and Yasué, Maï 2007 “Generating Carbon Finance through Avoided Deforestation and Its Potential to Create Climatic, Conservation, and Human Development Benefits.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 363 (1498): 1917–1924.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eliasch, Johan 2008 Climate Change: Financing Global Forests: The Eliasch Review. London: Office of Climate Change.Google Scholar
Fearnside, Philip 1997 “Environmental Services as a Strategy for Development in Rural Amazonia.” Ecological Economics 20 (1): 53–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fearnside, Philip 2001 “Environmentalists Split over Kyoto and Amazon Deforestation.” Environmental Conservation 28 (4): 295–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fearnside, Philip 2005 “Deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia: History, Rates and Consequences.” Conservation Biology 19 (3): 680–688.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fearnside, Philip 2007 “Brazil's Cuiabá-Santarém (BR-163) Highway: The Environmental Cost of Paving a Soybean Corridor through the Amazon.” Environmental Management 39:601–614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fearnside, Philip, and de Alencastro Graça, Paulo 2006 “Brazil's Manaus-Porto Velho Highway and the Potential Impact of Linking the Arc of Deforestation to Central Amazonia.” Environmental Management 38:705–716.Google ScholarPubMed
Ferraro, Paul, and Kiss, Agnes 2002 “Direct Payments to Conserve Biodiversity.” Science 298 (5599): 1718–1719.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferraro, Paul, and Pattanayak, Subhrendu 2006 “Money for Nothing? A Call for Empirical Evaluation of Biodiversity Conservation Investments.” PLoS Biology 4 (4): 105.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferreira, L., Venticinque, E., Lemos de Sá, R., and Pinagél, Luiz Carlos 2002 Protected Areas or Paper Parks: The Importance of Protected Areas in Reducing Deforestation in Rondônia, Brazil. Brasília: World Wildlife Fund.Google Scholar
Fisher, Robert, Maginnis, Stewart, Jackson, William, Barrow, Edmund, and Jeanrenaud, Sally 2008 Linking Conservation and Poverty Reduction: Landscapes, People and Power. London: Earthscan.Google Scholar
Forest Carbon Partnership Facility 2009 FY2009 Annual Report. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.Google Scholar
Foresta, Ronald A. 1991 Amazon Conservation in the Age of Development: The Limits of Providence. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.Google Scholar
Friends of the Earth 2008 “Governadores pretendem implantar políticas para reduzir emissão de gases de efeito estufa na Amazônia.” Friends of the Earth Report (accessed November 24, 2010, at http://www.amazonia.org.br).Google Scholar
Friends of the Earth 2009 “Governadores pedem a Lula políticas de REDD” (accessed July 1, 2009, at http://www.amazonia.org.br/noticias/noticia.cfm?id=317335).Google Scholar
Global Canopy Programme 2008 The Little REDD Book. Oxford: Global Canopy Programme.Google Scholar
Government of Brazil 2006 Positive Incentives for Voluntary Action in Developing Countries to Address Climate Change: Brazilian Perspective on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation. Submission by the Government of Brazil to the UNFCCC COP12, Nairobi, Kenya, November 15–16.Google Scholar
Government of Brazil 2007 Corredores ecológicos: Experiências em planejamento e implementação. Brasília: Ministry of the Environment.Google Scholar
Greenpeace 2009 “Falta de implementação faz desmatamento avançar em reserve extrativista no Pará.” Press release, São Paulo, January 19.Google Scholar
Grieg-Gran, Maryanne, Porras, Ina, and Wunder, Sven 2005 “How Can Market Mechanisms for Forest Environmental Services Help the Poor? Preliminary Lessons from Latin America.” World Development 33 (9): 1511–1527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffiths, Tom 2007 Seeing “RED”? Avoided Deforestation and the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities. Moreton-on-Marsh, U.K.: Forest People's Programme.Google Scholar
Grupo de Trabalho Interministerial 2004 Plano de desenvolvimento sustentável para a área de influência da BR-163: Oficina de Consulta a Sociedad Local. Brasília: Grupo de Trabalho Interministerial, Casa Civil da Presidência da República.Google Scholar
Gusmão, Suelene 2009 “Minc anuncia ações para guerra total ao desmatamento em 2009.” Press release, March 11, Brasília, Ministry of the Environment.Google Scholar
Hall, Anthony 1989 Developing Amazonia: Deforestation and Social Conflict in Brazil's Carajás Programme. Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Hall, Anthony 1997 Sustaining Amazonia: Grassroots Action for Productive Conservation. Manchester, U.K.: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Hall, Anthony 2000 “Environment and Development in Brazilian Amazonia: From Protectionism to Productive Conservation.” In Amazonia at the Crossroads: The Challenge of Sustainable Development, edited by Hall, Anthony, 99–114. London: Institute of Latin American Studies, University of London.Google Scholar
Hall, Anthony 2007 “Extractive Reserves: Building Natural Assets in the Brazilian Amazon.” In Reclaiming Nature: Environmental Justice and Ecological Restoration, edited by Boyce, James, Narain, Sunita, and Stanton, Elizabeth, 151–179. London: Anthem Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, Anthony 2008a “Better RED Than Dead: Paying the People for Environmental Services in Amazonia.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 363 (1498): 1925–1932.Google Scholar
Hall, Anthony 2008b “Pay the People or Pay the Price: Environmental Services and Governance in the Brazilian Amazon.” In The Troubled Triangle: Unraveling the Linkages between Inequality, Pluralism and the Environment, edited by Pansters, Wil, 127–145. Amsterdam: Rozenberg.Google Scholar
Hall, Anthony 2008c “Paying for Environmental Services: The Case of Brazilian Amazonia.” Journal of International Development 20:965–981.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, Anthony, ed. 2005 Global Impact, Local Action: New Environmental Policy in Latin America. London: Institute for the Study of the Americas, University of London.Google Scholar
Hardner, Jaled 2008 “The Problem of Financing Protected Areas in the Andes-Amazon Region.” Paper presented at the conference Economics and Conservation in the Tropics: A Strategic Dialogue, January 31-February 1.Google Scholar
Hochstetler, Kathryn, and Keck, Margaret E. 2007 Greening Brazil: Environmental Activism in State and Society. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Renováveis and World Wildlife FundGoogle Scholar
Hochstetler, Kathryn, and Keck, Margaret E. 2007 Management Effectiveness of Brazil's Federal Protected Areas. Brasília: Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Renováveis and World Wildlife Fund.Google Scholar
Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais 2007 Report from the National Institute for Amazon Studies, Manaus (accessed August 31, 2009, at http://www.amazonia.org.br/noticias/noticia.cfm?id=252293).Google Scholar
Instituto de Pesquisas Ambientais da Amazonia 2009 Paving the REDD Road in the Brazilian Amazon. Belém: Instituto de Pesquisas Ambientais da Amazonia.Google Scholar
Instituto Socioambiental 2008 Unidades de conservação na Amazônia Legal (accessed April 4, 2009, at http://www.socioambiental.org).Google Scholar
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs 2008 Conference on Indigenous Peoples and Climate Change, Copenhagen, 21–22 February 2008. Meeting Report. Submitted to the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, 7th session, New York.Google Scholar
Killeen, Timothy 2007 A Perfect Storm in the Amazon Wilderness: Development and Conservation in the Context of the Initiative for the Integration of the Regional Infrastructure of South America (URSA). Arlington, VA: Conservation International.Google Scholar
Kindermann, Georg, Obersteiner, Michael, Sohngen, Brent, Sathaye, Jayant, Andrasko, Kenneth, Rametsteiner, Ewald, Schlamadinger, Bernhard, Wunder, Sven, and Beach, Robert 2008 “Global Cost Estimates of Reducing Carbon Emissions through Avoided Deforestation.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 105 (30): 10302–10307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lemos, Maria Carmen, and Roberts, J. Timmons 2008 “Environmental Policy-Making Networks and the Future of the Amazon.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 363 (1498): 1897–1902.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lerda, Daniela, and Zwick, Steve 2009 “A Brief Tour of Brazilian Payments for Ecosystem Services.” Ecosystem Marketplace, Katoomba Group (accessed March 3, 2009, at http://ecosystemmarketplace.com).Google Scholar
Livengood, Erich, and Dixon, Alistair 2009 REDD and the Effort to Limit Global Warming to 2 Degrees C: Implications for Including REDD Credits in the International Carbon Market. Report prepared for Greenpeace. Wellington, New Zealand: KEA 3 Limited, March.Google Scholar
Macdonald, Katherine 2008 Green Inc: An Environmental Insider Reveals How a Good Cause Has Gone Bad. Guildford, CT: Lyons Press.Google Scholar
Machado, Altino 2008 “Resex Chico Mendes tem 10 mil cabezas de gado.” Terra Magazine, October 8 (accessed June 10, 2009, at http://reservasextrativistas.blogspot.com/2008/ll/resexchico-mendes-tem-10-mil-cabeas-de.html).Google Scholar
Mato Grosso (State Government of) 2009 The Northwest Mato Grosso REDD Pilot Project Outline. Cuiabá: Mato Grosso State Government, Instituto Centro de Vida, and the Nature Conservancy.Google Scholar
McElhinny, Vince 2007 “Second Latin American Congress of National Parks and Protected Areas.” Info brief, November. Washington, D.C.: Bank Information Center.Google Scholar
McKinsey and Company 2009 Caminhos para uma economia de baixa emissão de carbono no Brasil. São Paulo: McKinsey and Company.Google Scholar
McShane, Thomas, and Newby, Suad 2004 “Expecting the Unattainable: The Assumptions behind ICDPs.” In Getting Biodiversity Projects to Work: Towards More Effective Conservation and Development, edited by McShane, Thomas and Wells, Michael, 49–74. New York: Columbia University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McShane, Thomas, and Wells, Michael, eds. 2004 Getting Biodiversity Projects to Work: Towards More Effective Conservation and Development. New York: Columbia University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mercadante, Maurício 2007 Avanços na implementação do SNUC e desafios para o futuro. Brasília: Directorate of Protected Areas, Secretariat of Biodiversity and Forests, Ministry of the Environment.Google Scholar
Ministry of the Environment 2008 Relatório final do Grupo de Trabalho BR-319. Brasília: Ministry of the Environment.Google Scholar
Muradian, Roldan, Corbera, Esteve, Pascual, Unai, Kosoy, Nicolás, and May, Peter 2010 “Reconciling Theory and Practice: An Alternative Conceptual Framework for Understanding Payments for Environmental Services.” Ecological Economics 69:1202–1208.Google Scholar
Myers, Erin 2008 Climate Change and Forestry: A REDD Primer. Katoomba Group (accessed April 2, 2008, at http://ecosystemmarketplace.com).Google Scholar
Nature Conservancy 2009 Noel Kempff Mercado Climate Action Project: A Case Study in Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation. Arlington, VA: Nature Conservancy.Google Scholar
Naughton-Treves, Lisa, Holland, Margaret Buck, and Brandon, Katrina 2010 “The Role of Protected Areas in Conserving Biodiversity and Sustaining Local Livelihoods.” In The Earthscan Reader in Poverty and Biodiversity Conservation, edited by Roe, Dilys and Elliot, Joanna, 157–164. London: Earthscan.Google Scholar
Nepstad, Daniel, Veríssimo, Adalberto, Nobre, Carlos, Lefevre, Paul, Schlesinger, Peter, Potter, Christopher, Moutinho, Paulo, Lima, Eirivelthon, Cochrane, Mark, and Brooks, Vanessa 1999 “Large-Scale Impoverishment of Amazonian Forests by Logging and Fire.” Nature 398:505–508.Google Scholar
Nepstad, Daniel, Soares-Filho, Britaldo, Merry, Frank, Moutinho, Paulo, Rodrigues, Hermann Oliveira, Bowman, Maria, Schwartzman, Steve, Almeida, Oriana, and Rivero, Sergio 2007 The Costs and Benefits of Reducing Carbon Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in the Brazilian Amazon. Falmouth, MA: Woods Hole Research Center.Google Scholar
Nepstad, Daniel, Stickler, Claudia, Soares-Filho, Britaldo, and Merry, Frank 2008 “Interactions among Amazon Land Use, Forests and Climate: Prospects for a Near-Term Tipping Point.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 363 (1498): 1737–1746.Google ScholarPubMed
Nóra-Sotomayor, Katiuscia 2007 “Projeto de mineração deve testar a aplicação da Convenção 169 no Brasil.” Instituto Socioambiental, December 17 (accessed April 1, 2009, at http://www.socioambiental.org/nsa/detalhe?id=2592)Google Scholar
Ostrom, Elinor 1990 Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pagiola, Stefano 2008 “Payments for Environmental Services in Costa Rica.” Ecological Economics 65:712–724.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pará (State Government of) 2008 Programa Campo Cidadão. Belém: Secretaria do Agricultura do Estado do Pará, Pará State Government.Google Scholar
Partlow, Joshua 2009 “A Protected Forest's Fast Decline.” Washington Post Foreign Service, February 6.Google Scholar
Peskett, Leo, Huberman, David, Bowen-Jones, Evan, Edwards, Guy, and Brown, Jessica 2008 Making REDD Work for the Poor. London: Poverty Environment Partnership.Google Scholar
Poats, Susan 2007 “Report on the Latin American Regional Workshop on Compensation for Environmental Services and Poverty Alleviation in Latin America, April 26–28, 2006.” World Agroforestry Centre Working Paper No. 33. Quito: World Agroforestry Centre.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prince's Rainforest Project 2009 An Emergency Package for Tropical Forests. London: Prince's Rainforest Project, March.Google Scholar
Radiobrás 2008 News report on July 8 (accessed July 9, 2008, at http://www.amazonia.org.br). Rede Amazônica de Informação Socioambiental GeorreferenciadaGoogle Scholar
Radiobrás 2009 Map of Amazon Protected Areas. Rede Amazônica de Informação Socioambiental Georreferenciada (accessed April 3, 2009, at http://www.raisg.socioambiental.org).Google Scholar
Rodriguez, J., Taber, A. B., Daszak, P., Sukumar, R., Valladares-Padua, C., Padua, S., Aguirre, L., Medellín, R., Acosta, M., Aguirre, A., et al. 2007 “Globalization of Conservation: A View from the South.” Science 317 (10): 755–756.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rueda, Rafael, Abdala, Fábio, Vivan, Jorge, Barbanti, Olympio, and Pinto, Rogério 2006 Avaliação do programa piloto para proteção das florestas tropicais do Brasil: Relatório consolidado de avaliação. Brasilia: Ministry of the Environment.Google Scholar
Salisbury, David, and Schmink, Marianne 2007 “Cows versus Rubber: Changing Livelihoods among Amazonian Extractivists.” Geoforum 38 (6): 1233–1249.Google Scholar
Sánchez, Gonzalo 2006 La Patagonia vendida: Los nuevos dueños de la tierra. Buenos Aires: Marea Editorial.Google Scholar
Stern, Nicholas 2007 The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. London: HM Treasury-Cabinet Office.Google ScholarPubMed
Steward, Corrina 2007 “From Colonization to ‘Environmental Soy’: A Case Study of Environmental and Socio-Economic Valuation in the Amazon Soy Frontier.” Agriculture and Human Values 24 (1): 107–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tomaselli, Ivan 2006 Brief Study on Funding and Finance for Forestry and Forest-Based Sector. Curitiba, Brazil: UN Forum on Forests.Google Scholar
UN Environmental Programme and World Conservation Monitoring Centre 2008a Carbon Storage in Protected Areas: Technical Report. Nairobi: UN Environmental Programme and World Conservation Monitoring Centre.Google Scholar
UN Environmental Programme and World Conservation Monitoring Centre 2008b Protected Areas: An Effective Tool to Reduce Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries? Nairobi: UN Environmental Programme and World Conservation Monitoring Centre.Google Scholar
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change 2005 Sixth Compilation and Synthesis of Initial National Communications from Parties Not Included in Annex I to the Convention. Addendum: Inventories of Anthropogenic Emissions by Sources and Removals by Sinks of Greenhouse Gases. New York: UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.Google Scholar
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change 2008 National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Data for the Period 1990–2006. New York: UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.Google Scholar
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change 2009 Copenhagen Accord, Conference of the Parties Fifteenth Session, December 7–18, Copenhagen (accessed June 16, 2010, at http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/2009/copl5/eng/107.pdf).Google Scholar
Veríssimo, Adalberto, Rolla, Alicia, Vedoveto, Mariana, and de Melo Futada, Silvia 2011 Áreas protegidas na Amazônia brasileira: Avanços e desafios. São Paulo: Instituto de Pesquisa Ambiental da Amazônia and Instituto Socioambiental.Google Scholar
Viana, Virgilio 2009a “Financing REDD: Meshing Markets with Government Funds.” Briefing, March. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.Google Scholar
Viana, Virgilio 2009b “Seeing REDD in the Amazon: A Win for People, Trees and Climate.” Opinion, March. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.Google Scholar
Vidal, J. 2007 “The Great Green Land Grab.” Guardian, February 13.Google Scholar
Wells, Michael, and Brandon, Katrina 1992 People and Parks: Linking Protected Area Management with Local Communities. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, World Wildlife Fund, and U.S. Agency for International Development.Google Scholar
Wood, Charles, and Schmink, Marianne 1978 “Blaming the Victim: Small Farmer Production in an Amazon Colonization Project.” Studies in Third World Societies 7 (February): 77–93.Google Scholar
World Bank 2008 State and Trends of the Carbon Market. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.Google Scholar
World Commission on Protected Areas 2008 Summary of Protection by Country and Territory on 31 January 2008 (accessed March 8, 2009 at http://www.wdpa.org/Default.aspx).Google Scholar
World Conservation Union-UN Environment Program 2003 2003 United Nations List of Protected Areas. Gland, Switzerland: UN Environment Programme-World Conservation Monitoring Centre.Google Scholar
World Resources Institute 2005 The Wealth of the Poor: Managing Ecosystems to Fight Poverty. New York: World Resources Institute, UN Development Programme, and World Bank.Google Scholar
World Wildlife Fund 2008 “Brazilian Amazon Protected Areas Could Cut 1.1 Billion Tons of Carbon Emissions.” May 29 (accessed March 13, 2009, at http://www.wwf.org.uk).Google Scholar
World Wildlife Fund 2009 Keeping the Amazon Forests Standing: A Matter of Values. Zeist, Netherlands: World Wildlife Fund.Google Scholar
Wunder, Sven 2005 “Payments for Environmental Services: Some Nuts and Bolts.” Occasional Paper No. 42. Jakarta: CIFOR (accessed June 16, 2010, at http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-42.pdf).Google Scholar
Wunder, Sven 2006a “The Efficiency of Payments for Environmental Services in Tropical Conservation.” Conservation Biology 21 (1): 48–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wunder, Sven 2006b “Are Direct Payments for Environmental Services Spelling Doom for Sustainable Forest Management in the Tropics?” Ecology and Society 11 (2): 23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wunder, Sven, ed., Börner, with Jan, Tito, Marcos, and Pereira, Lígia 2008 Pagamentos por serviços ambientais: Perspectives para a Amazônia Legal. Brasília: Ministry of the Environment.Google Scholar
Zbinden, Simon, and Lee, David 2004 “Payment for Environmental Services: An Analysis of Participation in Costa Rica's PSA Programme.” World Development 33 (2): 255–272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zwick, Steve 2009a “Historic Agreement at Katoomba Meeting. Longtime Adversaries Embrace: Is It for Real?” Ecosystem Marketplace, Katoomba Group (accessed April 9, 2009, at http://ecosystemmarketplace.com).Google Scholar
Zwick, Steve 2009b “Rio's Atlantic Forest Fund: Spreading the Environmental Wealth.” Ecosystem Marketplace, Katoomba Group (accessed April 4, 2009, at http://www.forestcarbonportal.com/article.php?item=306).Google Scholar