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Hacienda—Indian Community Relations and Indian Acculturation: An Historiographical Essay

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 October 2022

Erwin P. Grieshaber
Erwin P. Grieshaber*
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
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In analyzing the historical development of Meso- and Andean-American society, historians have stressed the hacienda's destructive impact on native settlements, which, once broken down, became disposed to the adoption of Spanish traits. This view focuses primarily on the hacendado's acquisition of Indian land and labor and the resultant destruction, partial or complete, of traditional Indian forms of cultivation, trade, and ultimately social relationships. To the extent that the hacendado forced communal Indians to resettle in newly opened lands, cultivate European crops, and engage in European trade, he encouraged the Indians to abandon their traditional rituals and adopt readily available Spanish patterns as replacements.

Type
Research Article
Information
Latin American Research Review , Volume 14 , Issue 3 , 1979 , pp. 107 - 128
Copyright
Copyright © 1979 by the University of Texas Press

References

Notes

1. The above view is implicit in Robert Keith, “Encomienda, Hacienda and Corregimiento in Spanish America: A Structural Analysis,” Hispanic American Historical Review 51 (Aug. 1971):431–66.

2. Sherburne Cook, The Epidemic of 1830–1833 in California and Oregon, University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnohistory 43 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1955), p. 316.

3. Sherburne Cook and Woodrow Borah, Essays in Population History Mexico and the Caribbean, 2 vols. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971–74) 1:viii, 269.

4. For a description of Noble David Cook's work see Nicolás Sánchez-Albornoz, The Population of Latin America: A History, trans. W. A. R. Richardson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), p. 44 and Daniel E. Shea, “A Defense of Small Population Estimates for the Central Andes,” William M. Denevan, ed., The Native Population of the Americas in 1492 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1976), p. 176.

5. Sánchez-Albornoz, Population of Latin America, pp. 91, 113.

6. Cook and Borah, Essays in Population History 1:83, 99–113.

7. Sánchez-Albornoz, Population of Latin America, pp. 44–47.

8. Eric Wolf, Sons of the Shaking Earth, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959), p. 199.

9. Ibid., pp. 168–75, 200; for the Andean area see Nathan Wachtel, The Vision of the Vanquished: the Spanish Conquest of Peru through Indian Eyes, 1530–1570, trans. Ben and Sian Reynolds (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1977), pp. 13–32, 85–139, 152–58.

10. Wolf, Sons of the Shaking Earth, p. 212 and Karen Spalding, “Kurakas and Commerce: A Chapter in the Evolution of Andean Society,” Hispanic American Historical Review 53 (Nov. 1973):581–99.

11. Charles Gibson, The Aztecs under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico 1519–1810 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1964), pp. 220–56.

12. Ibid., pp. 257–99.

13. John Mark Tutino, “Creole Mexico: Spanish Elites, Haciendas and Indian Towns, 1750–1810,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas at Austin, 1976, pp. 270–390.

14. William B. Taylor, Landlord and Peasant in Colonial Oaxaca (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1972), p. 77.

15. Wayne S. Osborn, “Indian Land Retention in Colonial Metztitlan,” Hispanic American Historical Review 53 (May 1973):103–15.

16. Taylor, Landlord and Peasant, pp. 107–10.

17. Osborn, “Indian Land Retention,” pp. 234–35.

18. Borah and Cook, Essays in Population History 1:288–92.

19. The section on Guatemala is a summary of Murdo J. Macleod, Spanish Central America: A Socioeconomic History, 1520–1720 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973).

20. For the most detailed early history of Potosí, see Bartolome Azans de Orzua y Vela, Historia de la villa imperial de Potosí, 3 vols., eds. Lewis Hanke and Gunnar Mendoza (Providence, R.I.: Brown University Press, 1965).

21. Alberto Crespo Rodas, “La mita de Potosí,” Revista Histórica 22 (Lima: 1955–56):171–72.

22. For descriptions of the formation of the forastero group see Oscar Cornblit, “Society and Mass Rebellion in Eighteenth-Century Peru and Bolivia,” in Raymond Carr, ed., Latin American Affairs: St. Anthony's Papers 22 (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), pp. 24–25 and Karen Spalding, “Hacienda-Village Relations in Andean Society to 1830,” Latin American Perspectives 2 (Spring 1975):110–11.

23. Crespo Rodas, “La mita de Potosí,” p. 182.

24. The process by which Spaniards exploited Andean Indian communities is best described by Karen Spalding “Hacienda-Village Relations” pp. 107–22 and Karen Spalding, “El corregidor de indios y los orígenes de la hacienda serrana peruana,” Karen Spalding, De indio a campesino: cambios en la estructura social del Peru colonial (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 1974), pp. 127–46.

25. François Chevalier, Land and Society in Colonial Mexico: The Great Hacienda, trans. Alvin Eustis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970), p. 169.

26. MacLeod, Spanish Central America, pp. 307–09.

27. Robert Keith, Conquest and Agrarian Change: The Emergence of the Hacienda System on the Peruvian Coast (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1976), pp. 27–79.

28. For a history of slavery and black-white relations in Peru see Frederick P. Bowser, The African Slave in Colonial Peru 1524–1650 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1974), pp. 272–334. For the population data on Peru in the late eighteenth century, see J. R. Fisher, Government and Society in Colonial Peru: The Intendant System 1784–1814 (London: The Athelone Press, 1970), pp. 251–53.

29. Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa, A Voyage to South America, trans. John Adams [abridged] (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1964) pp. 195, 223 and Bowser, The African Slave, pp. 302–23.

30. The description of colonization in Eastern Cochabamba comes from Erwin P. Grieshaber, “Survival of Indian Communities in Nineteenth-Century Bolivia,” Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1977, pp. 59–62, 67–81.

31. Patricia Cozier Hutchins, “Rebellion and the Census of the Province of Cochabamba, 1730–1732,” Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1974, pp. 61–62.

32. For a concise description of the impact of European industrialization on Spanish-America see Roberto Cortés Conde, The First Stages of Modernization in Spanish America (New York: Harper and Row, 1974).

33. John Womack, Jr., Zapata and the Mexican Revolution, (New York: Random House, 1968), pp. 37–66.

34. Ronald Waterbury, “Non Revolutionary Peasants: Oaxaca Compared to Morelos in the Mexican Revolution,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 17 (Oct. 1975):410–42.

35. Alain Y. Dessaint, “Effects of the Hacienda and Plantation Systems on the Guatemalan Indians,” América Indigena 22 (Oct. 1962):330–31. For a full treatment of government-sponsored labor programs to aid coffee planters see: Chester Lloyd Jones, Guatemala: Past and Present, 2d ed. (New York: Russell and Russell, 1966), pp. 141–67 and David McCreery, “Coffee and Class: The Structure of Development In Liberal Guatemala,” Hispanic American Historical Review 56 (Aug. 1976):438–60.

36. Grieshaber, “Survival of Indian Communities,” pp. 212–67.

37. Manning Nash, “The Impact of Mid-Nineteenth Century Economic Change upon the Indians of Middle America,” in Magnus Mörner, ed. Race and Class in Latin America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1970), pp. 170–83.

38. William E. Carter, Aymara Communities and the Bolivian Agrarian Reform (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1964), pp. 7–48.

39. François Chevalier, “Official Indigenismo in Peru in 1920: Origins, Significance and Socioeconomic Scope,” in Mörner, Race and Class, pp. 184–98, reviews early indigenista writers of the 1920s.

40. Oscar Lewis, Tepoztlán: Village in Mexico (New York: Holt, 1960), p. 97.

41. Ibid., pp. 102–3.

42. Gregory G. Reck, In the Shadow of Tlaloc: Life in a Mexican Village (London: Penguin Books, 1978), pp. 15–17.

43. David Ronfeldt, Atencingo: The Politics of Agrarian Struggle in a Mexican Ejido (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1973), p. 215.

44. Sol Tax and Robert Hinshaw, “Panajachel a Generation Later,” in Walter Goldschmidt and Harry Hoijer, eds., The Social Anthropology of Latin America: Essays in Honor of Ralph Leon Beals (Los Angeles: University of California Latin American Center, 1970), pp. 175–98.

45. Manning Nash, Machine Age Maya: The Industrialization of a Guatemala Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967) 2d ed., pp. 6–16.

46. Madeline Barbara Leons, “Stratification and Pluralism in the Bolivian Yungas,” in Goldschmidt and Hoijer, Social Anthropology of Latin America, p. 266.

47. Hans C. Buechler and Judith-Maria Buechler, The Bolivian Aymara (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971), pp. 1–19, 68–89.

48. F. LaMond Tullis, Lord and Peasant in Peru, A Paradigm of Political and Social Change (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970).

49. Ibid., pp. 164–81, 267.

50. L. C. Faron, “Ethnicity and Social Mobility in Chancay Valley, Peru,” in Goldschmidt and Hoijer, Social Anthropology of Latin America, pp. 224–55.

51. For descriptions of relations between Indians, whites, and mestizos in Northern Mexico see Thomas B. Hinton, “Indian Acculturation in Nayarit: The Cora Response to Mestizoization” and Edward H. Spicer, “Contrasting Forms of Nativism among the Mayos and Yaquis of Sonora, Mexico,” in Goldschmidt and Hoijer, Social Anthropology of Latin America, pp. 16–35, 104–25. See also George M. Foster, Tzintzuntzan: Mexican Peasants in a Changing World (Boston: Little, Brown, 1967), pp. 32–37; Luis Gonzalez y Gonzalez, San José de Gracia: Mexican Village in Transition, trans. John Upton (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1972), pp. 27, 45–56, 74; and Paul S. Taylor, A Spanish-Mexican Peasant Community: Arandas in Jalisco, Mexico (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1933), pp. 14–17.

52. The atomization of peasant society is described in Peter Coy, “A Watershed in Mexican Rural History: Some Thoughts on the Reconciliation of Conflicting Interpretations,” Journal of Latin American Studies 3 (May 1971):39–57. Coy reconciles Robert Redfield's description of Tepotzlán in 1928 (peaceful cooperation among communal residents) with Oscar Lewis' description of Tepotzlán in 1943 (aggressive individualistic behavior) by showing that the population of Tepotzlán had increased tremendously after the Mexican Revolution, making access to land for everybody (the goal of the Revolution) very difficult. “By 1943 the swollen population … is expressing its multifaceted individuality and competitiveness in the behavior which Lewis discovered” (p. 57). Villagers, who acquired positions in the local governing ejidal institutions, engrossed land and labor for their own benefit and encouraged “all kinds of activity prejudicial to the equitable sharing of the fruits of the land” (p. 55).

53. The last conclusion is derived from H. Hoetink, Slavery and Race Relations in the Americas, Comparative Notes on Their Nature and Nexus. (New York: Harper and Row, 1973), pp. 115–28.