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Recent Research on Latin American Urbanization: A Selective Survey with Commentary

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 October 2022

Richard M. Morse
Richard M. Morse*
Affiliation:
Yale University
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A comprehensive survey of recent research on latin american urbanization would be a large task for a team of specialists, particularly if it were to include local as well as comparative studies, the working papers which circulate through government and academic offices, and all the scholarly disciplines which now contribute to the topic. This paper is no more than a sampling of research on selected aspects of urbanization, interlarded with commentary and a bit of opinion. Except for Section 1, emphasis is upon scholarly output of the past five years. Whatever unity the presentation may have springs from the interests of a historian who is less concerned with physical and social engineering than with identifying cultural and institutional imperatives of the past which shape contemporary social process.

Type
Topical Review
Information
Latin American Research Review , Volume 1 , Issue 1 , Fall 1965 , pp. 35 - 74
Copyright
Copyright © 1965 by the University of Texas Press

Footnotes

*

Revised version of a paper presented at the Conference on International and Comparative Urban Studies in American Higher Education, Rutgers University, June 6–8, 1965. Research was done under the auspices of a Guggenheim Fellowship, a grant from the Social Science Research Council, and a Senior Faculty Fellowship from Yale University.

References

NOTES

1. Luís Ortiz de Zevallos, “Lima: Rising Metropolis,” paper for the 11th Pan American Congress of Architects, Washington, D.C., 15–20 June 1965. The Incaic period is Jorge Basadre's point of departure in La multitud, la ciudad y el campo en la historia del Perú (Lima, 1929).

2. Jorge E. Hardoy, Ciudades precolombinas (Buenos Aires, 1964), p. 13. Arq. Hardoy promises two future volumes on colonial and on modern Latin American cities.

3. Luis García Valdeavellano, Historia de España de los orígenes a la Baja Edad Media (3rd ed.; 2 vols., Madrid, 1963), II, 458. Also his Sobre los burgos y los burgueses de la España medieval (Madrid, 1960) and José María Lacarra, “Panorama de la historia urbana en la Península Ibérica desde el siglo V al X” in Centro Italiano di Studi sull'Alto Medioevo, La città nell'Alto Medioevo (Spoleto, 1959), pp. 319–57.

4. “[During] the very first years of conquest and settlement in America, in its unplanned aspects conquest culture represented southwest and west-central Spain rather than the north.” George M. Foster, Culture and Conquest, America's Spanish Heritage (Chicago, 1960), p. 232.

5. See Jaime Cortesão, Os factores democráticos na formação de Portugal (Lisbon, 1964), pp. 58–158; Torquato Brochado de Souza Soares, Apontamentos para o estudo da origem das instituicões municipals portuguesas (Lisbon, 1931).

6. See Christian Anglade, “Une tentative de répartition territoriale du phénomène de la capitale: le municipe brésilien,” Caravelle, 3 (1964), 228–40.

7. Leopoldo Torres Balbás et al., Resumen histórico del urbanismo en España (Madrid, 1954), pp. 3–148.

8. Robert Ricard, “La Plaza Mayor en Espagne et en Amérique Espagnole,” Annales, Économie—Sociétés—Civilisations, II, 4 (Oct.–Dec. 1947), 433–38. Also Robert C. Smith, “Colonial Towns of Spanish and Portuguese America,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, XIV, 4 (Dec. 1955), 1–12; Erwin Walter Palm, “Los orígenes del urbanismo imperial en América” in Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia, Comisión de Historia, Contribuciones a la historia municipal de América (Mexico City, 1951), pp. 239–68; Luís Silveira, Ensaio de iconografía das cidades portuguesas do Ultramar (4 vols., Lisbon, n. d.), vol. IV.

9. Francisco de Toledo, viceroy of Peru (1569–81), wrote to his king: “[The] first settlers of the cities who remained there as magistrates assumed the power of the governors sent to them so as to give and distribute to the settlers the lands they felt to be necessary. This they did more generously than later seemed proper, and they also caused the cabildos to give lands to those who asked for them, with so little thought for the common good of the cities that they failed to leave aside dehesas, or ejidos or propios in most cases, as needed to maintain the republics.” Relaciones de los virreyes y audiencias que ban gobernado el Perú (3 vols., Lima and Madrid, 1867–72), I, 14–15.

10. From a dialogue of 1618 we learn of a wealthy Brazilian sugar planter who amused himself by making a gift to anyone who built a house in the city: 20 milréis for a two-storey house, 10 milréis for a one-storey one. “And he did this for a long time … without deriving any benefit other than fulfilling his wish to see the city grow.” Brandônio, Diálogos das grandezas do Brasil (Recife, 1962), p. 97.

11. Max Weber, The City (Glencoe, 1958), chap. 2.

12. However, Francois Chevalier describes a sporadic “free village” movement of the peons and renters on north Mexican haciendas in the late 18th and 19th centuries: “Survivances seigneuriales et présages de la révolution agraire dans le nord du Mexique,” Revue Historique, CXXII (July–Sept. 1959), 1–18.

13. The attempt of royal officials to make the encomenderos of New Granada carry out their municipal obligations caused what one historian calls the revolt of a “Fronde.” Indalecio Liévano Aguirre, Los grandes conflictos sociales y económicos de nuestra historia (4 vols., Bogotá, n. d.), vol. I.

14. For bibliography on colonial cities see articles in Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia, op. cit. Also: Agustín Millares Carlo, Los Archivos municipales de Latinoamérica: Libros de actas y colecciones documentales; apuntes bibliográficos (Maracaibo, 1961); Francisco Domínguez Compañy, “Bibliografía de las instituciones locales de Hispanoamérica (época colonial), Revista Interamericana de Bibliografía, VI, 3 (July-Sept. 1956), 209–23. Selected reading: Constantino Bayle, Los cabildos seculares en la América Española (Madrid, 1952); Herbert Wilhelmy, Südamerika im Spiegel seiner Städte (Hamburg, 1952); R. M. Morse, ”Some Characteristics of Latin American Urban History,“ American Historical Review, LXVII, 2 (Jan. 1962), 317–38; George A. Kubler, Mexican Architecture of the Sixteenth Century (2 vols., New Haven, 1948) John P. Moore, The Cabildo in Peru under the Hapsburgs (Durham, 1954), and ”The Cabildo in Peru under the Bourbons“ (unpublished MS); Guillermo Céspedes del Castillo, Lima y Buenos Aires (Seville, 1947); Juan A. García, La ciudad indiana in his Obras completas (2 vols., Buenos Aires, 1955), I, 283–475; Amílcar Razori, Historia de la ciudad argentina (3 vols., Buenos Aires, 1945); Julio Alemparte Robles, El cabildo en Chile colonial (Santiago, 1940); Edmundo Zenha, O municipio no Brasil (1532–1700) (São Paulo, 1948); Nelson Omegna, A cidade colonial (Rio de Janeiro, 1961). Thomas Gale (University of Kansas) with the assistance of Bernhard Ansel has collected 8,000 titles referring to ”communities“ in Latin America with emphasis on the historical aspect. It is in the process of being prepared according to author and area.

15. These admittedly sketchy figures include the non-Hispanic Caribbean region and are from Rosenblat and Carr-Saunders in Angel Rosenblat, La población indígena y el mestizaje en América (2 vols., Buenos Aires, 1954).

16. Relaciones de los virreyes …, op. cit., III, 18–19.

17. Francois Chevalier, “La gran propiedad en México desde el siglo XVI hasta comienzos del siglo XIX,” Desarrollo Económico, III, 1–2 (April–Sept. 1963), 51.

18. Fernando Rosenzweig Hernández, “La economía novo-hispana al comenzar el siglo XIX,” Ciencias Políticas y Sociales, IX, 33 (July-Sept. 1963), 459.

19. John Lynch, Spanish Colonial Adminstration, 1782–1810 (London, 1958), pp. 154–62. Colonization was not always successful; see Félix de Azara, Memoria sobre el estado rural del Río de la Plata y otros informes (Buenos Aires, 1943), pp. 1–25.

20. Fernando de Azevedo, Brazilian Culture (New York, 1950), p. 77.

21. Aroldo de Azevedo, Vilas e cidades do Brasil colonial (Sao Paulo, 1956), pp. 35–54.

22. Federico Brito Figueroa, La estructura económica de Venezuela colonial (Caracas, 1963), pp. 271, 275.

23. Francisco Suárez, Selections from Three Works (Oxford, 1944), p. 365.

24. Federico Brito Figueroa, La estructura social y demográfica de Venezuela colonial (Caracas, 1961), p. 73 n; also his Ensayos de historia social de Venezuela (Caracas, 1960).

25. ECLA (Economic Commission for Latin America), El desarrollo social de América Latina en la postguerra (Buenos Aires, 1963), p. 13. The point is developed in my essay “The Heritage of Latin America” in Louis Hartz, The Founding of New Societies (New York, 1964), pp. 123–77.

26. For 19th-century cities see: “Expansión urbana en la América Latina durante el siglo XIX” (symposium), Estudios Americanos, XIII, 67–68 (April-May 1957), 255–93; William E. Curtis, The Capitals of Spanish America (New York, 1888); Razori, op. cit.; Gilberto Freyre, The Mansions and the Shanties (New York, 1963); Joaquín Capelo, Sociología de Lima (4 vols., Lima, 1895–1902).

27. R. M. Morse, From Community to Metropolis, A Biography of São Paulo, Brazil (Gainesville, 1958).

28. George A. Kubler, “Cities and Culture in the Colonial Period in Latin America,” Diogenes, 47 (Fall 1964), 53–62.

29. For bibliography on contemporary Latin American cities see: Exchange Bibliographies, Latin American Series (Nos. 1–8, 1962–64), compiled by Francis Violich and distributed by the Council of Planning Librarians, Eugene, Ore.; Angel Rubio y Muñoz-Bocanegra, Bibliografía de geografía urbana de América (Rio de Janeiro, 1961); Waldemiro Bazzanella, Problemas de urbanização na América Latina, fontes bibliográficas (Rio de Janeiro, 1960). Comparative bibliography: William Bicker et al; Comparative Urban Development: An Annotated Bibliography (Washington, 1965). General studies or collections of studies : Philip H. Hauser, ed., Urbanization in Latin America (New York, 1961); “Actes du Colloque sur le problème des capitales en Amérique Latine,” Caravelle 3 (1964); Jaime Dorselaer and Alfonso Gregory, La urbanización en América Latina (2 vols., Fribourg and Brussels, 1962); Luis Calderón, Arturo Calle and Jaime Dorselaer, Problemas de urbanización en América Latina (Fribourg and Bogotá, 1963); R. M. Morse, “Latin American Cities: Aspects of Function and Structure” in John Friedmann and William Alonso, eds., Regional Development and Planning (Cambridge, 1964), pp. 361–81; Centro Latino Americano de Pesquisas em Ciencias Sociais, Situação social da América Latina (Rio de Janeiro, 1965), pp. 50–79; T. Lynn Smith, “Urbanization in Latin America,” in Nels Anderson, ed., Urbanism and Urbanization (Leiden, 1964), pp. 127–42; John P. Powelson and Anatole A. Solow, “Urban and Rural Development in Latin America,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 360 (July 1965), 48–62; Mauricio Gómez Mayorga et al., La superurbanización caótica (Mexico City, 1963); W. Stanley Rycroft and Myrtle M. Clemmer, A Study of Urbanization in Latin America (New York, 1962). Case studies: Jorge E. Hardoy, “The Process of Urbanization in Argentina,” paper for the Conference on International and Comparative Urban Studies in American Higher Education, Rutgers University, 6–8 June 1965, and two papers circulated by the Instituto Latinoamericano de Planificación Económica y Social, Santiago: Luis Ratinoff, “La urbanización en América Latina: el caso de Paraguay” (multilith, July 1964) and Suzana Prates, “Algunas consideraciones sobre el proceso de urbanización de El Salvador” (mimeog., Dec. 1964).

30. For a case study of “conurbation” see M. T. Segadas Viana, “Nova Iguaçu, absorção de urna célula urbana pelo Grande Rio de Janeiro,” Revista Brasileira de Geografía, XXIV, 2 (April-June 1962), 155–250.

31. See Moysés Poblete Troncoso, “El éxodo rural, sus orígenes, sus repercusiones,” América Latina, V, 1–2 (Jan.–June 1962), 41–49; Henry F. Dobyns and Mario C. Vázquez, eds., Migración e integración en el Perú (Lima, 1963); José Francisco de Camargo, Êxodo rural no Brasil (2nd ed.; Rio de Janeiro, 1960); Instituto Joaquim Nabuco de pesquisas Sociais, As migrações para o Recife (4 vols., Recife, 1961); Pan American Union, Éxodo rural en Venezuela (Washington, 195?); Nathan L. Whetten and Robert G. Burnight, “Internal Migration in Mexico,” Estadística, Journal of the Inter-American Statistical Institute, XVI, 58 (March 1958), 65–77; Edmundo Flores, Tratado de economía agrícola (2nd ed.; Mexico City, 1962), pp. 204–20; Universidad de Chile, Instituto de Economía, La población del Gran Santiago (Santiago, 1959), chap. IX; La Torre (special no. on Puerto Rican emigration), IV, 13 (Jan.–March 1956).

32. F. C. Weffort distinguishes urban populism from “coronelismo,” the old-style, personalized client relationship of the rural Brazilian municipio: “Política de massas” in Octávio Ianni et al., Política e revolução social no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1965), pp. 159–98. The classic study of “coronelismo” is Victor Nuñes Leal, Coronelismo, enxada e voto (Rio de Janeiro, 1948).

33. Andrew Pearse, “Some Characteristics of Urbanization in the City of Rio de Janeiro” in Hauser, op. cit., p. 202.

34. Gino Germani, “Emigración del campo a la ciudad y sus causas” in Horacio Giberti et al., Sociedad, economía y reforma agraria (Buenos Aires, 1965), pp. 74–75. Charles Rosario emphasizes the imponderables and the sense of personal crisis attending each decision to migrate: “La emigración como experiencia vital,” La Torre, IV, 13 (Jan.–March 1956), 23–31.

35. Marshall Wolfe, “Some Implications of Recent Changes in Urban and Rural Settlement Patterns in Latin America,” paper for UN World Population Conference, 1965 (A.8/I/E66). Also ECLA, Social Affairs Division, “Rural Settlement Patterns and Social Change in Latin America: Notes for a Strategy of Rural Development” (multilith, April 1964).

36. Torcuato S. Di Telia, La teoría del primer impacto del crecimiento económico (Buenos Aires, n. d.), p. 34.

37. Child of the Dark (New York, 1962) by Carolina Maria de Jesus is the diary of such a person.

38. He classifies Brazil south from the state of Rio as advanced; Pernambuco, Bahia and Minas Gerais as intermediate; the rest of Brazil as retarded.

39. Waldemiro Bazzanella, “Industrialização e urbanização no Brasil,” América Latina, VI, I (Jan.–March 1963), 3–26. The urban style of life may of course extend beyond the confines of a city; see Ruben E. Reina, “The Urban World View of a Tropical Forest Community in the Absence of a City, Peten, Guatemala,” Human Organization, XXIII, 4 (Winter 1964), 265–77. For historical and comparative analysis of urbanization without industrializaton see Bert F. Hoselitz, “The Role of Cities in the Economic Growth of Underdeveloped Countries,” Journal of Political Economy, LXI, 3 (June 1953), 195–208, and “The City, the Factory, and Economic Growth,” The American Economic Review, XLV, 2 (May 1955), 166–84. Frank Sherwood in an unpublished study on Brazil, “Patterns of urban growth and their political consequences,” MS (1965), found there was not as high a correlation between levels of urbanization and voter eligibility and participation as between these latter and industrialization.

40. Celso Furtado, “Obstáculos políticos ao crescimento econômico do Brasil,” Revista Civilização Brasil eira, I, 1 (March 1965), 133–41.

41. Denis Lambert, “Urbanisation et développement économique en Amérique Latine,” Caravelle, 3 (1964), 266–71; also Camilo Torres Restrepo, “La proletarización de Bogotá,” Monografías Sociológicas (Bogotá), 9 (Nov. 1961).

42. Simon Rottenberg, “Note on the Economics of Urbanization in Latin America,” UN document E/CN.12/URB 6 (30 Sept. 1958).

43. Colombia is highly regionalized; a city like Medellín might be said to have primacy at the departmental level.

44. Pedro Pinchas Geiger, Evolução da rêde urbana brasileira (Rio de Janeiro, 1963).

45. >ECLA, “Geographic Distribution of the Population of Latin America and Regional Development Priorities,” UN document E/CN.12/643 (10 Feb. 1963), pp. 28–33.

46. Brian J. L. Berry, “City Size Distributions and Economic Development,” Economic Development and Cultural Change, IX, 4, Part 1 (July 1961), 587. Floyd and Lillian Dotson noted high growth rates for smaller Mexican cities after 1940 and suggested correlation between decentralization and technological-economic development: “Urban Centralization and Decentralization in Mexico,” Rural Sociology, XXI, 1 (March 1956), 41–49.

47. ECLA, “Geographic Distribution …,” op. cit., p. 32

48. Harley L. Browning, “Recent Trends in Latin American Urbanization,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 316 (March 1958), 115–16.

49. Carlos Keller R. in “Seminario del Gran Santiago,” Boletín Informativo (Universidad de Chile), VIII, 34 (Oct. 1958), 197–98. For Caracas see José V. Montesino Samperio, La problación del area metropolitana de Caracas (Caracas, 1956).

50. Richard Bird, “The Economy of the Mexican Federal District,” Inter-American Economic Affairs, XVII, 2 (Autumn 1963), 50–51.

51. Browning, loc. cit., p. 116.

52. Carlos M. Rama, “De la singularidad de la urbanización en el Uruguay,” Revista de Ciencias Sociales, VI, 2 (June 1962), 177–86. Also: David E. Snyder, “Urban Places in Uruguay and the Concept of a Hierarchy” (author's offprint), and “Commercial Passenger Linkages and the Metropolitan Nodality of Montevideo,” Economic Geography, XXXVIII, 2 (April 1962), 95–112. For Uruguay's social discontinuities see Aldo E. Solari, “Impacto político de las diferencias de los países en los grados e índices de modernización y desarrollo económico en América Latina,” América Latina, VIII, 1 (Jan.–March 1965), 5–21.

53. ECLA, Desarrollo social…, op. cit., p. 81.

54. For a recent inquiry into industrial workers' attitudes see Guillermo Briones and José Mejía Valera, El obrero industrial (Lima, 1964).

55. Kubler, Mexican Architecture …, op. cit., I, 74.

56. Asael T. Hansen, “The Ecology of a Latin American City” in E. B. Reuter, ed., Race and Culture Contacts (New York, 1934), pp. 124–42.

57. Oscar Lewis, “Urbanization without Breakdown,” The Scientific Monthly, LXXV, 1 (July 1952), 31–41, and “Nuevas observaciones sobre el ‘continuum’ con especial referencia a México,” Ciencias Políticas y Sociales, IX, 3 (Jan.–March 1963), 13–28; William P. Mangin, “The Role of Regional Associations in the Adaptation of Rural Population in Perú,” Sociologus, IX, 1 (1959), 23–35, and “Mental Health and Migration to Cities: A Peruvian Case,” The New York Academy of Sciences, Annals, 84 (Dec. 1960), 911–17; Douglas S. Butterworth, “A Study of the Urbanization Process among Mixtec Migrants from Tilaltongo in Mexico City,” América Indígena, XXII, 3 (July 1962), 257–74; Latin American papers for Symposium No. 26, Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research (Aug. 27—Sept. 8, 1964). “Cross-cultural Similarities in the Urbanization Process,” for a critique of the folk-urban continuum and comparative bibliography see Francisco Benet, “Sociology Uncertain: The Ideology of the Rural-Urban Continuum,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, VI, 1 (Oct. 1963), 1–23.

58. Theodore Caplow hints at this possibility in “The Social Ecology of Guatemala City,” Social Forces, XXVIII, 2 (Dec. 1949), 113–33, and “The Modern Latin American City” in Sol Tax, ed., Acculturation in the Americas (Chicago, 1952), pp. 255–60.

59. Junta Nacional de la Vivienda, Lima, mimeog., memo on barriadas. José Matos Mar states that in 1961 the percentage of Lima's inhabitants in barriadas stood at 26%, and that for the newly developed industrial city of Chimbote the figure reached 70%; “El caso del Perú: consideraciones sobre su situación social como marco de referencia al problema de Lima,” Caravelle, 3 (1964), 119.

60. Figures taken with extrapolations from “As favelas do Estado da Guanabara, segundo o censo de 1960,” Boletim Estatístico (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografía e Estatística), 84 (Oct.–Dec. 1963).

61. ECLA, “Urbanization in Latin America, Results of a Field Survey of Living Condi-tons in an Urban Sector,” E/CN.12/662 (13 March 1963), pp. 5–7.

62. Architectural Design, XXXIII, 8 (Aug. 1963), 373–74. For an evaluation of the superblocks and their maladministration by the regime which built them see Banco Obrero, Proyecto de evaluación de los superbloques (Caracas, 1961); Rolando Grooscors, “Problemas de vivienda urbana en Venezuela,” VI Congreso Latinoamericano de Sociología, Memoria (2 vols., Caracas, 1961), II, 47–51.

63. Two novels about villas miserias are: Bernardo Verbitsky, Villa miseria también es América (2nd ed., Buenos Aires, 1958), and Rubén Benítez, Ladrones de luz (Buenos Aires, 1959).

64. Claude Bataillon, “Mexico capitale métis,” Caravelle, 3 (1964), 173–74; Bird, loc. cit., pp. 48–49.

65. ECLA, “Geographic Distribution …,” op. cit., pp. 5–8.

66. Centro Latino Americano de Pesquisas, op. cit., p. 89.

67. A sidelight on this question comes from a study of lower-class use of leisure time in Salvador, Brazil, which indicates that the proportion of activities demanding active rather than passive participation is much higher here than in “developed” urban societies: Acácio Ferreira, Lazer operário, um estudo de organização social das cidades (Salvador, 1959).

68. Luis Calderón Alvarado, Poder retentivo del “area local urbana” en las relaciones sociales (Fribourg, 1963); Theodore Caplow et al., The Urban Ambience, A Study of San Juan, Puerto Rico (Totowa, N. J., 1964).

69. For an extended critique of the Caplow study see R. M. Morse, “The Sociology of San Juan: An Exegesis of Urban Mythology,” Caribbean Studies, V, 2 (July 1965), in press.

70. Guillermo Rosenblüth López, Problemas socio-económicos de la marginalidad y la integración urbana (Santiago, 1963) and “La participación de las poblaciones urbanas en el crecimiento urbano,” MS (Jan. 1965). Also ECLA, “Urbanization in Latin America …,” op. cit. Joaquín Edwards Bello, El roto (Santiago, 1920) is an early novel of lower-class Santiago life.

71. Rosenblüth, “La participación …,” op. cit.

72. New York Times, 15 Dec. 1964.

73. See G. H. Dietz et al., Housing in Latin America (Cambridge, 1965); C. A. Frankenoff, “Low-cost Housing in a Latin Economy,” Inter-American Economic Affairs, XVII, 4 (Spring 1964), 79–86. Charles Abrams, Man's Struggle for Shelter (Camridge, 1964) provides a comparative context; in chap. 12 he points out difficulties of self-help programs. For Puerto Rico, which has had much experience with public housing, see Kurt W. Back, Slums, Projects, and People (Durham, 1962); Helen I. Safa, “From Shanty Town to Public Housing,” Caribbean Studies, IV, 1 (April 1964), 3–11; A. B. Hollingshead and L. H. Rogler, “Attitudes toward Slums and Public Housing in Puerto Rico” in Leonard J. Duhl, ed., The Urban Condition (New York, 1963), pp. 229–45. The last two studies illustrate the frustrations and social disorganization which the move from slums to public housing {caseríos) may produce.

74. John C. Turner, “An Interpretation of the Housing Problem in the Light of Popular Experience,” mimeog. lecture, Junta Nacional de la Vivienda, Lima.

75. Caplow et al., Urban Ambience …, op. cit., p. 228.

76. Junta Nacional de la Vivienda, memo on barriadas, op. cit. Oscar Lewis illustrates differing levels of social cohesion among Mexican vecindades in “The Culture of Poverty in Mexico City, Two Case Studies,” The Economic Weekly (June 1960), 965–72.

77. Baltazar Caravedo, Humberto Rotondo and Javier Mariátegui, Estudios de psiquiatría social en el Perú (Lima, 1963); Richard W. Patch, “Life in a Callejón. A Study of Urban Disorganization,” AUFS, West Coast South America Series, VIII, 6 (June 1961). For a strategy with respect to such zones Viceroy Manuel de Guirior established a vigorous if paternalistic precedent. In 1780 he wrote of his troubles with Pitipití, a settlement of 2,000 persons of all castas near the plaza of Callao that was subject to “grave and continuous disorders.” Deserters took shelter there; theft, murder and assault were endemic. The haphazard grouping of shacks made it hard to intervene without risking violence. “But keeping always in mind the necessity which created this first settlement, I seized a good opportunity, and without any disturbance or casualties the inhabitants were all moved near the town of San Simón de Villavista, a quarter of a league from Callao. There, with the streets and facilities that were given to them, they are building houses and ranchos where they can live more obedient and civilized lives.” Relaciones de los virreyes …, op. cit., III, 90 (italics added).

78. André Corten, “Como vive la otra mitad de Santo Domingo: estudio de dualismo estructural,” Caribbean Studies, IV, 4 (Jan. 1965), 3–19.

79. Irwin Press, “The Incidence of Compadrazgo among Puerto Ricans in Chicago,” Social and Economic Studies, XII, 4 (Dec. 1963), 475–80.

80. In Cali a similar distinction exists between the “traditional” and the “economic” compadrazgo. Centro Interamericano de Vivienda y Planeamiento, Siloé, el proceso de desarrollo comunal aplicado a un proyecto de rehabilitación urbana (Bogotá, 1958), p. 9.

81. Lloyd H. Rogler, “Slum Neighborhoods in Latin America,” unpublished paper. Ernesto Ruiz reports on anxiety and insecurity in a Puerto Rican slum in “Algunas observaciones e interpretaciones sobre un arrabal puertorriqueño,” Revista de Ciencias Sociales, VII, 1–2 (March-June 1963), 149–67.

82. Research by North Americans on Latin American slum and shanty dwellers hums with a war chant against venerated theoretical models for urban society. What the new interpretations prove is not so much the ethnocentrism of Maine or Durkheim or Wirth as the naïveté of contemporary American social science and the inability of its practitioners to deal simultaneously with generalized models and cultural systems. The “culture of poverty” invites the same mischievous inversion which Marx performed for Proudhon's “philosophy of poverty.”

83. An ironic twist to Alberdi's injunction of the last century: gobernar es poblar.

84. A Peruvian sociologist claims that in his country this social sector is establishing its cultural identity as a cholo group, that it is not taking what he feels to have been the Mexican path of total Westernization. Aníbal Quijano O., “La emergencia del grupo ‘cholo’ y sus implicaciones en la sociedad peruana” (Lima, 1964, mimeog).

85. “[Many Mexican] economic and political planners consider a rapid population growth as an exciting national challenge, opportunity, or stimulus rather than an obstacle to national progress.” Arthur F. Corwin, Contemporary Mexican Attitudes toward Population. Poverty, and Public Opinion (Gainesville, 1963), p. 49. Also J. Mayone Stycos, “Opinions of Latin-American Intellectuals on Population Problems and Birth Control,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 306 (July 1965), 11–26.

86. See “Creation of Employment Opportunities in Relation to Labour Supply” in Hauser, op. cit., pp. 118–48.

87. In Los dueños del Peru (Lima, 196?), pp. 63–67, Carlos Malpica lists “urbanizable” private landholdings of one million square meters or more in the environs of Lima and Callao, a total of 119 haciendas. These lands, generally held for speculation, are carefully protected against invasions by squatters, who are forced into arid, sandy zones.

88. Francois Bourricaud, “La place de Lima dans la vie politique péruvienne,” Caravelle, 3 (1964), 138–46. Also Torcuato S. Di Telia, El sistema político argentino y la clase obrera (Buenos Aires, 1964); Alfonso Trujillo Ferrari, “Atitudes e comportamento político do imigrante nordestino em São Paulo,” Sociología, XXIV, 3 (Sept. 1962), 159–80.

89. Carlos Alberto de Medina, A favela e o demagogo (Sao Paulo, 1964), pp. 97–98.

90. Comisión Promoción Popular, Informe (4 vols. mimeog. Santiago, Aug. 1964).

91. José Medina Echavarría, Consideraciones sociológicas sobre el desarrollo económico en América Latina (Montevideo, 1964), pp. 69–77. Also: ECLA, Desarrollo social …, op. cit.; Andrew H. Whiteford, Two Cities of Latin America (Beloit, 1960); Miguel Othón de Mendizábal et al., Las clases sociales en México (Mexico City n. d.); Octávio Ianni, Industrialização e desenvolvimento no Brasil (Rio de Janeiro, 1963); José Luis de Imaz, La clase alta de Buenos Aires (Buenos Aires, 1962) and Los que mandan (Buenos Aires, 1964). An extended essay which cites interesting literary material is Juan José Sebrelli, Buenos Aires, vida cotidiana y alienación (4th ed.; Buenos Aires, 1965). Juan Carlos Argulla studies the impact of recent industrialization on social classes and social process in Córdoba, Argentina, in “Aspectos sociales del proceso de industrialización en una comunidad urbana,” Revista Mexicana de Sociología, XXV, 2 (May-Aug. 1963), 747–72.

92. ECLA, “El empresario industrial en América Latina,” UN document E/CN.12/642 (11 March 1963), with 4 appendices containing case studies of Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Colombia. Also: Louis Kriesberg, “Entrepreneurs in Latin America and the Role of Cultural and Situational Processes,” International Social Science Journal, XV, 4 (1963), 581–94; Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Empresário industrial e desenvolvimento econômico (São Paulo, 1964); Juarez Rubens Brandão Lopes, Sociedade industrial no Brasil (Sao Paulo, 1964); Albert Lauterbach, Management Attitudes in Chile (Santiago, 1961); Charles H. Savage, Jr., Social Reorganization in a factory in the Andes (Ithaca, 1964); T. C. Cochran and Ruben E. Reina, Entrepreneur ship in Argentine Culture (Philadelphia, 1962). Warren K. Dean has done a historical study which shows how the organizational structures of the Brazilian fazenda was transferred to industrial management: São Paulo's Industrial Elite, 1890–1960, unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Florida, 1964.

93. Enzo Faletto, “Incorporación de los sectores obreros al proceso de desarrollo,” Instituto Latinoamericano de Planificación Económica y Social, Santiago, multilithed (Dec. 1964). Also: Alain Touraine, “Industrialisation et conscience ouvrière à São Paulo,” ed., “Ouvriers et syndicats d'Amerique Latine,” special No. of Sociologie du Travail, III 4 (Oct.–Dec. 1961), and esp. Touraine's own study (pp. 77–95): Bertram Hutchinson, Mobilidade e trabalho (São Paulo, 1960).

94. For a general statement see Desiderio Graue, “Coordinación de la labor del sociólogo y del urbanista frente al fenómeno citadino y el problema de la vivienda,” VI Congreso de Sociología, op. cit., II, 62–75.

95. See Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna, Historia crítica y social de la ciudad de Santiago (2 vols., Valparaiso, 1869).

96. These reflections were suggested to me by Luis Ratinoff.

97. “Rio admirável mundo novo,” Manchete (17 April 1965), 42–87.

98. In capital-poor Latin America a fixed investment of $100 generates average annual production of $40–50, but only $10–12 if put into residential building. Hauser, op. cit., p. 37.

99. Zelia Nuttall, “Royal Ordinances concerning the Laying Out of New Towns,” Hispanic American Historical Review, IV, 4 (Nov. 1921), 743–53 and V, 2 (May 1922), 249–54.

100. See William Mangin's account of a Lima invasion in Architectural Design, XXXIII, 8 (Aug. 1963), 368–69; also J. P. Powelson, “The Land-Grabbers of Cali,” The Reporter (16 Jan. 1964), 30–31.

101. “Población Cardenal Caro ¿llegará a ser comuna?” La Voz (Santiago), 21 March 1965.

102. A Lima informant told me that a barriada of about 450 families is optimum for development work. Comisión Promoción Popular (op. cit.) contains discussions of the ideal size for nuclear urban communities.

103. Middle-class Chileans who try to assimilate to the upper class and its ways are called siúticos. They are analyzed in Frederick B. Pike, “Aspects of Class Relations in Chile, 1850–1960,” Hispanic American Historical Review, XLIII, 1 (Feb. 1963), 14–33. For a general statement see A. Pizzorno, “Sviluppo economico e urbanizzazione,” Quaderni di Sociología, XI (1962), 21–51.

104. Luiz Saia, “Notas para a teorização de São Paulo,” Acrópole, XXV, 295–96 (June 1963), 209–21.

105. For Paulista regional ecology see: Pierre Monbeig, Pionniers et planteurs de São Paulo (Paris, 1952); Aroldo de Azevedo et al., A cidade de São Paulo, estudos de geografía urbana (4 vols., São Paulo, 1958); Caio Prado Júnior, Evolução política do Brasil e outros estudos (4th ed.; São Paulo, 1963), pp. 95–146. For regional studies of other cities see: Instituto Brasileiro de Geografía e Estatística, Conselho Nacional de Geografía, O Rio de Janeiro e sua região (Rio de Janeiro, 1964); Mary C. Megee, Monterrey, Mexico: Internal Patterns and External Relations (Chicago, 1958); Jean Tricart, “Un exemple du déséquilibre villes—campagnes dans une économie en voie du développement: Le Salvador,” Développement et Civilisations, 11 (July-Sept. 1962).

Addenum. The following three articles, all by Kingsley Davis, should be appropriately inserted in the footnotes above: “Colonial Expansion and Urban Diffusion in the Americas”; “Las causas y efectos del fenómeno de primacía urbana con referencia especial a América Latina”; “The Place of Latin America in World Demographic History.” They appear as Nos. 131, 144 and 145, respectively, of the Reprint Series of the Institute of International Studies, University of California, Berkeley.