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Recent Trends in the Study of Spanish American Colonial Public Finance

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 October 2022

Herbert S. Klein  and
Jacques A. Barbier
Herbert S. Klein
Affiliation:
Columbia University
Jacques A. Barbier
Affiliation:
University of Ottawa
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Fiscal history has become one of the most active new fields of research on colonial Spanish America. This trend has resulted from a number of recent breakthroughs, most notably the reconstruction of colonial treasury records and the appearance of the first revisionist studies based on the new data. These works are challenging traditional views, particularly the general understanding of the colonial economic experience and the evolution of imperial ties. Indeed, the fiscal series now being made available, if properly supported by qualitative research and regional studies, may affect seventeenth- and eighteenth-century historiography as notably as the demographic works of the Berkeley school affected sixteenth- and seventeenth-century historiography.

Type
Research Article
Information
Latin American Research Review , Volume 23 , Issue 1 , 1988 , pp. 35 - 62
Copyright
Copyright © 1988 by Latin American Research Review

References

Notes

1. Alexander von Humboldt, Essai politique sur le royaume de la Nouvelle-Espagne (6 vols.; Paris, 1811; reprint, Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, 1971).

2. An example of this tendency is the work of Miguel Lerdo de Tejada, a mid-nineteenth century scholar who consulted Veracruz consulado and treasury records to estimate Mexican commerce before and after independence. See Miguel Lerdo de Tejada, Comercio exterior de México (2nd. ed.; Mexico, 1967).

3. Ricardo Levene, Investigaciones acerca de la historia económica del virreinato del Plata (2nd. ed.; Buenos Aires, 1952).

4. Clarence H. Haring, “Ledgers of the Royal Treasurers in Spanish America in the Sixteenth Century,” Hispanic American Historical Review (HAHR) 2, no. 2 (May 1919):173–87; but see also Haring, “The Early Spanish Colonial Exchequer,” American Historical Review 23, no. 4 (July 1918):779–96. From the same generation is Arthur Scott Aiton's “Real Hacienda in New Spain under the First Viceroy,” Hispanic American Historical Review 6, no. 4 (Nov. 1926):232–45; and William W. Pierson, Jr., “The Establishment and Early Functioning of the Intendencia of Cuba,” James Sprunt Historical Studies 19, no. 2 (1927) (Chapel Hill, N.C.).

5. Herbert Ingram Priestley, José de Gálvez, Visitor-General of New Spain (1765–1771) (Berkeley, 1916).

6. Manuel Moreyra y Paz Soldán, “Valor histórico de los libros de contabilidad hacendaría colonial,” Revista Histórica 22 (1955–56):311–35.

7. A recent example may be found in Jacques A. Barbier, Reform and Politics in Bourbon Chile, 1755–1796 (Ottawa, 1980), particularly pp. 127–34. Alternatively, Latin Americanists might have gone yet further and applied the model provided by J. F. Bosher's French Finances, 1770–1795: From Business to Bureaucracy (Cambridge, 1970), in which the author managed to discuss fiscal history without resorting to numbers.

8. Amy Bushnell's The King's Coffer: Proprietors of the Spanish Florida Treasury, 1565–1702 (Gainesville, 1981) is a good example of this kind of work.

9. Paul E. Hoffman, “The Computer and the Colonial Treasury Accounts: A Proposal for a Methodology,” Hispanic American Historical Review 50, no. 4 (Nov. 1970):731–40.

10. Herbert S. Klein, “Structure and Profitability of Royal Finances in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1790,” Hispanic American Historical Review 53, no. 3 (Aug. 1973):440–69.

11. Gaspar de Escalona Agüero, Gazofilacio Real del Perú (4th ed.; La Paz, 1941).

12. Fabián de Fonseca and Carlos de Urrutia, Historia general de Real Hacienda (6 vols.; Mexico City, 1845–1853).

13. Ismael Sánchez Bella, “La jurisdicción de hacienda en las Indias,” Anuario de Historia del Derecho Español 29 (1959):176–227; Sánchez Bella, La organización financiera de las Indias (siglo xvi) (Seville, 1968); and Fernando de Armas, “Los oficiales de la Real Hacienda en las Indias,” Revista de Historia 16 (1963):11–34.

14. J. H. Parry, The Sale of Public Office in the Spanish Indies under the Hapsburgs (Berkeley, 1953).

15. See Pedro Santos Martínez, in “Reforma de la contabilidad colonial en el siglo xviii (el método de partida doble),” Anuario de Estudios Americanos (1960):525–36, for one model. See another in the recent detailed reconstruction of one year in the Mexican treasury by Cecilia Rossell, Cartas cuentas la Real Hacienda en Nueva España, 1557 (Mexico City, 1984). For cases of documentary collections, see José de Limonte, Libro de la razón general de la Real Hacienda del Departamento de Caracas: lo escribió D. José de Limonte, Contador Mayor del Tribunal de Cuentas de su distrito (Caracas, 1962); and Hacienda colonial venezolana: contadores mayores e intendentes del ejército y Real Hacienda, edited by Hector García Chuecos (Caracas, 1946).

16. El primer libro de la hacienda pública colonial de Venezuela, 1529–1538, compiled by Eduardo Arcila Farias (Caracas, 1979); Libros de la hacienda pública en Nueva Segovia (1551–1577) y Caracas (1581–1597) (Caracas, 1983); and Libros de la Real Hacienda en la última década del siglo xvi (Caracas, 1983).

17. See, for example, Martin Lesley Seeger III, “A Study of Four Problems of Real Hacienda in New Spain in the Sixteenth Century,” Ph.D. diss., University of California, Santa Barbara, 1966.

18. See, Luis Navarro García, “El Real Tribunal de Cuentas de México a principios del siglo xviii,” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 34 (1977):517–35.

19. See Juan Bautista Rivarola Paoli, “Organización hacendística en la época colonial,” Historia Paraguaya (1986):161–214; and Rivarola Paoli, “La estructura financiera colonial,” Revista de la Dirección de Impuestos Internos, supplement to no. 2, series 3:1–24.

20. See three works by Fernando Silva Vargas: “La visita de Areche en Chile y la subdelegación del Regente Alvarez de Acevedo,” Historia 6 (1967):153–91 (Santiago); “Perú y Chile: notas sobre sus vinculaciones administrativas y fiscales,” Historia 7 (1968):147–203 (Santiago); and “La Contaduría Mayor de Cuentas del Reyno de Chile,” Estudios de Historia de las Instituciones Políticas y Sociales 2 (1967). See also Jacques A. Barbier, “Tradition and Reform in Bourbon Chile: Ambrosio O'Higgins and Public Finance,” The Americas 34, no. 3 (Jan. 1978):381–99.

21. See Fred Bronner, “La unión de las armas en el Perú: aspectos políticos-legales,” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 23 (1966):1133–76; and “Tramitación legislativa bajo Olivares: la reducción de los arbitrios de 1631,” Revista de Indias 41, nos. 165–66 (July–Dec. 1981):411–43. See also Ronald Escobedo Mansilla, “La alcabala en el Perú bajo los Austrias,” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 33 (1976):257–71; Escobedo Mansilla, El tributo indígena en el Perú (siglos xvi–xvii) (Pamplona, 1979); and José Jesús Hernández Palomo, “El ‘estado general de la Real Hacienda de Perú, Chile y Río de la Plata’ de Alfonso Rodríguez Ovalle,” Historiografía y Bibliografía Americanistas 21 (1978):3–58.

22. See also Rocío Caracuel Moyano, “Los mercaderes del Perú y la financiación de los gastos de la monarquía, 1650–1700,” Thirty-Sixth International Congress of Americanists (Seville, 1966) 4:335–43; María Encarnación Rodríguez Vicente, “Los caudales remitidos desde el Perú a España por cuenta de la Real Hacienda: series estadísticas (1651–1739),” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 21 (1964):1–24; and Sonia Pinto Vallejos, El financiamiento extraordinario de la Real Hacienda en el virreinato peruano: Cuzco, 1576–1650 (Santiago, 1981).

23. See the following works by Kenneth J. Andrien: “The Sale of Juros and the Politics of Reform in the Viceroyalty of Peru, 1608–1695,” Journal of Latin American Studies (JLAS) 13, pt. 1 (May 1981):1–19; “The Sale of Fiscal Offices and the Decline of Royal Authority in the Viceroyalty of Peru, 1633–1700,” Hispanic American Historical Review 62, no. 1 (Feb. 1982):49–71; “Corruption, Inefficiency, and Imperial Decline in the Seventeenth-Century Viceroyalty of Peru,” The Americas 41, no. 1 (July 1984):1–20; and Crisis and Decline: The Viceroyalty of Peru in the Seventeenth Century (Albuquerque, 1985). See also Lawrence A. Clayton, “Local Initiative and Finance in Defence of the Viceroyalty of Peru: The Development of Self-Reliance,” Hispanic American Historical Review 54, no. 2 (May 1974):284–304; Peter J. Bradley, “The Cost of Defending a Viceroyalty: Crown Revenue and the Defense of Peru in the Seventeenth Century,” Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv 10, no. 3 (1984):267–89; and Javier Tord and Carlos Lago, Hacienda, comercio, fiscalidad y luchas sociales (Perú colonial) (Lima, 1981).

24. For example, see Kendall Walker Brown, “The Economic and Fiscal Structure of Eighteenth-Century Arequipa,” Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1974.

25. See, for example, Richard L. Garner, “Exportaciones de circulante en el siglo xviii (1750–1810),” Historia Mexicana 31, no. 4 (Apr.–June 1982):545–98.

26. See, for example, Juan Carlos Garavaglia and Juan Carlos Grosso, “La región de Puebla/Tlaxcala en la Nueva España del siglo xviii,” in Eleventh International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association, Workshop W 313: Historia Regional de Puebla (1983), unnumbered. See also Garavaglia and Grosso, “Estado borbónico y presión fiscal en la Nueva España, 1750–1821,” paper presented at the Congress of the Asociación de Historiadores Latinoamericanistas Europeos (AHILA), Florence, May 1985; and Cecilia Rabell, Los diezmos de San Luis de la Paz: economía de una región del Bajío en el siglo xviii (Mexico City, 1985).

27. José María Cordoncillo Sanada, Historia de la Real Lotería en Nueva España (Seville, 1963).

28. María Angeles Cuello Martínez, La renta de naipes en Nueva España (Seville, 1966); David Lorne McWatters, “The Royal Tobacco Monopoly in Bourbon Mexico, 1764–1810,” Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, 1979; and James A. Lewis, “The Royal Gunpowder Monopoly in New Spain (1766–1783): A Case Study of Management, Technology, and Reform under Charles III,” Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv 6, no. 4 (1980):355–72.

29. José Jesús Hernández Palomo, El aguardiente de cana en México, 1724–1810 (Seville, 1974), and La renta del pulque en Nueva España, 1663–1810 (Seville, 1979).

30. María Justina Sarabia Viejo, El juego de gallos en Nueva España (Seville, 1972).

31. Robert S. Smith, “Sales Taxes in New Spain, 1575–1770,” Hispanic American Historical Review 28, no. 1 (Feb. 1948):2–37.

32. See particularly Antonia Heredia Herrera, La renta del azogue en Nueva España (Seville, 1978); and M. F. Lang, El monopolio estatal del mercurio en el México colonial (Mexico City, 1977).

33. See Richard L. Garner, “Reformas borbónicas y operaciones hacendarias de la Real Caja de Zacatecas, 1750–1821,” Historia Mexicana 27, no. 4 (Apr.–June 1978):542–87; Amalia Gómez Gómez, Las visitas de la Real Hacienda novohispana en el reinado de Felipe V (1710–1733) (Seville, 1979); Andrés Lira González, “Aspecto fiscal de la Nueva España en la segunda mitad del siglo xviii,” Historia Mexicana 17, no. 3 (Jan.–Mar. 1968):67; Linda K. Salvucci, “Costumbres viejas, ‘hombres nuevos’: José de Gálvez y la burocracia fiscal novo-hispana (1754–1800),” Historia Mexicana 33, no. 2 (Oct.–Dec. 1983):224–64; and Christon Archer, “Bourbon Finances and Military Policy in New Spain, 1759–1812,” The Americas 37, no. 3 (Jan. 1981):315–50.

34. For Mexico, see in particular Brian R. Hamnett, Politics and Trade in Southern Mexico, 1750–1821 (Cambridge, 1971). Equivalent literature for other areas of the empire may be found in the following works: J. R. Fisher, Government and Society in Colonial Peru: The Intendant System, 1784–1814 (London, 1970); Carlos Deustua Pimentel, Las intendencias en el Perú (1790–1796) (Seville, 1965); and John Lynch, Spanish Colonial Administration, 1782–1810: The Intendant System in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (London, 1958). For the empire in general, see Luis Navarro García, Intendencias en Indias (Seville, 1959).

35. In addition to the material cited in n. 15, see Harold A. Bierk, “Tobacco Marketing in Venezuela, 1798–1799: An Aspect of Spanish Mercantilistic Revisionism,” Business History Review 39, no. 4 (Winter 1965):489–502; Cam Harlan Wickam, “Venezuela's Royal Tobacco Monopoly, 1774–1810: An Economic Analysis,” Ph.D. diss., University of Oregon, 1975; and Jacques A. Barbier, “Venezuelan ‘Libranzas,‘ 1788–1807: From Economic Nostrum to Fiscal Imperative,” The Americas 37, no. 4 (Apr. 1981):457–78.

36. María Luisa Laviana Cuetos, “Organización y funcionamiento en las cajas reales de Guayaquil en la segunda mitad del siglo xviii,” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 37:313–49.

37. Fernando de Armas Medina, “Organización de la Real Hacienda en la isla de Cuba hasta la creación de la intendencia,” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 26 (1969):1–64; and Antonio Sánchez Ramírez, “Notas sobre la Real Hacienda de Cuba (1700–1760),” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 34 (1977):465–86.

38. Klein, “Structure and Profitability,” HAHR 53, no. 3.

39. See Miles Wortman, “Government Revenue and Economic Trends in Central America, 1787–1819,” Hispanic American Historical Review 55, no. 2 (May 1975):251–86; and his major work, Government and Society in Central America, 1680–1840 (New York, 1982), particularly chap. 7.

40. Pedro Santos Martínez, Historia económica de Mendoza durante el virreinato, 1776–1810 (Madrid, 1961); and Ernesto J. A. Maeder, Historia económica de Corrientes en el período virreinal, 1776–1810 (Buenos Aires, 1981). For a study of local municipal taxes, see Edberto Oscar Acevedo, “La sisa para el mantenimiento de las poblaciones del Chaco (1760–1776),” Investigaciones y Ensayos 28 (July–Sept. 1980):125–58.

41. A good summary of this school's work on Mexico is found in Sherburne F. Cook and Woodrow Borah, Essays in Population History (3 vols.; Berkeley, 1971–1979). A leading example of this approach to Peruvian history is Noble David Cook's Demographic Collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1620 (Cambridge, 1981).

42. Nicolás Sánchez-Albornoz, Indios y tributos en el Alto Perú (Lima, 1978).

43. See two useful legal studies by Carlos J. Díaz Rementería: “El régimen jurídico del ramo de tributos en Nueva España y las reformas peruanas de Carlos III,” Historia Mexicana 28, no. 3 (Jan.–Mar. 1979):401–38; and “En torno a un aspecto de la política reformista de Carlos III: las matrículas de tributarios en los virreinatos del Perú y del Río de la Plata,” Revista de Indias 37, nos. 147–48 (Jan.–June 1977):51–139.

44. Herbert Klein has presented a model on how to use these materials for both demographic and economic analysis in his article “Hacienda and Free Community in Eighteenth-Century Alto Peru: A Demographic Study of the Aymara Populations of Chulumani and Pacajes in 1786,” Journal of Latin American Studies 7, pt. 2 (1975):193–220. These same padrones were used by Klein to study wealth distribution among the hacienda owners in the same period. See Klein, “The Structure of the Hacendado Class in Late Eighteenth-Century Alto Peru: The Intendencia de La Paz,” Hispanic American Historical Review 60, no. 2 (May 1980):191–212.

45. See Tasa de la visita general de Francisco de Toledo, edited by Noble David Cook (Lima, 1975).

46. See Jürgen Golte, Repartos y rebeliones: Tupac Amaru y las contradiciones de la economía colonial (Lima, 1980).

47. The most recent work surveying this institution is Jeffrey A. Cole's The Potosí Mita, 1573–1700: Compulsory Indian Labor in the Andes (Stanford, 1985).

48. Pierre and Hughette Chaunu, Seville et l'Atlantique (1504–1650) (9 vols.; Paris, 1955–1960).

49. See Lutgardo García Fuentes, El comercio español con América (1650–1700) (Seville, 1978); Antonio García-Baquero González, Cádiz y el Atlántico (1717–1778) (2 vols.; Seville, 1976); and Carlos Martínez Shaw, Cataluña en la carrera de Indias, 1680–1756 (Barcelona, 1981). In Latin America, only Veracruz has received such a detailed treatment of its Atlantic trade. See Javier Ortiz de la Tabla, Comercio exterior de Veracruz, 1778–1821 (Seville, 1978).

50. See, for example, Woodrow Borah, Early Colonial Trade and Navigation between Mexico and Peru (Berkeley, 1954); Eduardo Arcila Farias, Comercio entre Venezuela y México en los siglos xvii y xviii (Mexico City, 1950); W. Schurz, The Manila Galleon (New York, 1939); Carmen Yuste López, El comercio de la Nueva España con Filipinas, 1590–1785 (Mexico City, 1984); Sergio Villalobos, Comercio y contrabando en el Río de la Plata y Chile, 1700–1811 (Buenos Aires, 1965); and Javier Cuenca, “Comercio y hacienda en la caída del imperio español, 1778–1826,” in La economía española al final del antiguo régimen, vol. 3, Comercio y colonias, edited by Josep Fontana Lázaro 389–453 (Madrid, 1982).

51. The classic work on trade has a focus that is almost entirely institutional. See C. H. Haring, Trade and Navigation between Spain and the Indies in the Time of the Hapsburgs (Cambridge, Mass., 1918). See also Guillermo Céspedes del Castillo, La avería en el comercio de Indias (Seville, 1945).

52. The annual summary accounts for the viceroyalties of Peru (including Chile) and the Río de la Plata were reproduced in John J. TePaske and Herbert S. Klein, Royal Treasuries of the Spanish Empire in America (3 vols.; Durham, N.C., 1982). The same authors have collected those for the viceroyalty of New Spain in Ingresos y egresos de la Real Hacienda en México (3 vols.). The first volume appeared in 1986, and the others will be published by the Instituto Nacional de Anthropología e Historia of Mexico. The records for the central treasury of Mexico City were reprinted in John J. TePaske, La Real Hacienda de Nueva España: la Real Caja de México (1576–1816) (Mexico City, 1976).

53. Other such projects now being researched include those of Luis Navarro García for the Viceroyalty of New Granada, Eduardo Arcila Farias for Venezuela, and the more general study of Alvaro Jara, Plata y pulque en el siglo xviii mexicano (Cambridge University Center for Latin American Studies, n.d.).

54. Klein, “Structure and Profitability,” HAHR 53, no. 3.

55. Samuel Amaral, “Public Expenditure Financing in the Colonial Treasury: An Analysis of the Real Caja de Buenos Aires Accounts, 1789–1791,” Hispanic American Historical Review 64, no. 2 (May 1984):287–95. This kind of critique is very different from the global rejection of the research enterprise exemplified in D. A. Brading, “Facts and Figments in Bourbon Mexico,” Bulletin of Latin American Research 4, no. 1 (1985):61–64.

56. On the problem of accuracy, see particularly Javier Cuenca Esteban, “Of Nimble Arrows and Faulty Bows: A Call for Rigor,” Hispanic American Historical Review 64, no. 2 (May 1984):297–303.

57. John J. TePaske, “Labyrinthine Corridors of the King's Countinghouse,” Hispanic American Historical Review 64, no. 2 (May 1984):304–9.

58. On this tax, see José Miranda, El tributo indígena en la Nueva España durante el siglo xvi (Mexico City, 1952); and José de la Peña Cámara, El “tributo,” sus orígenes, su implantación en la Nueva España: contribución al estudio de la Real Hacienda indiana (Seville, 1934).

59. Marcello Carmagnani, “La producción agro-pecuaria chilena: aspectos cuantitativos (1630–1830),” Cahiers des Ameriques Latines 3 (1969):3–21.

60. For a remarkable example of imaginative reconstruction from taxes that were later directly collected, see Marcello Carmagnani, Les mécanismes de la vie économique dans une societé coloniale: le Chili (1680–1830) (Paris, 1973). Alternatively, notarial records are useful for a limited number of taxes.

61. Church benefices had salaries attached, even if posts were temporarily vacant.

62. See André Gunder Frank, Latin America: Underdevelopment or Revolution (New York, 1969); and Earl J. Hamilton, American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501–1650 (Cambridge, Mass., 1934).

63. Michel Morineau, Incroyables gazettes et fabuleux metaux: les retours des trésors americains d'après les gazettes hollandaises (XVIe–XVIIIe siècles) (Paris, 1985).

64. In this regard, see the works of Andrien cited in n. 23; also John Lynch, Spain under the Hapsburgs 2 (London, 1969); and David A. Brading and Harry E. Cross, “Colonial Silver Mining: Mexico and Peru,” Hispanic American Historical Review 52, no. 4 (Nov. 1972):545–79.

65. Carlos Sempat Assadourian, El sistema de la economía colonial: mercado interno, regiones y espacio económico (Lima, 1982).

66. See, for example, Woodrow W. Borah, New Spain's Century of Depression (Berkeley, 1951). For another view, see J. I. Israel, “Mexico and the ‘General Crisis’ of the Seventeenth Century,” Past and Present 63 (May 1974):33–57; and Israel, Race, Class, and Politics in Colonial Mexico, 1610–1670 (London, 1975).

67. Local regional studies, such as the fine work of Peter Bakewell on Zacatecas, already indicated problems with the traditional view of uniform Mexican decline. See Bakewell, Silver Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico: Zacatecas, 1546–1700 (Cambridge, 1971).

68. It might be argued that a true understanding of the economic situation should be based on per capita figures. Given the problematic nature of the available demographic reconstructions, however, such a result is not to be hoped for at the present time.

69. See John J. TePaske and Herbert S. Klein, “The Seventeenth-Century Crisis in New Spain: Myth or Reality?,” Past and Present 90 (1981):116–35.

70. For a study of the situado (or grant-in-aid) sent to the Philippines, see Leslie Bauzon, “Deficit Government, Mexico, and the Philippines ‘Situado’ (1606–1804),” Ph.D. diss., Duke University, 1970.

71. For example, see François Chevalier, Land and Society in Colonial Mexico: The Great Hacienda (Berkeley, 1970).

72. See Borah, New Spain's Century of Depression; and the synthesis by Eric Wolf, Sons of the Shaking Earth (Chicago, 1959).

73. See, for example, Antonio Domínguez Ortiz, “Los caudales de Indias y la política exterior de Felipe IV,” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 12 (1956):311–83; and the works of María Encarnación Rodríguez Vicente, “Los caudales remitidos desde el Perú,” Anuario de Estudios Americanos; and Julián B. Ruiz Rivera, “Remesas de caudales del Nuevo Reino de Granada en el siglo xvii,” Anuario de Estudios Americanos 34 (1977):241–70.

74. One of the first attempts to measure this question for the late eighteenth century was reported in John Coatsworth, “Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico,” American Historical Review 83, no. 1 (Feb. 1978):80–100.

75. Humboldt, Nouvelle-Espagne 4.

76. See D. A. Brading, Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763–1810 (Cambridge, 1971).

77. In this regard, the collection of excise taxes through tollgates or an arrangement resembling a visa should not be confused with customs restrictions.

78. For a treasury-based account of the Mexican economy in this period, see Herbert Klein, “La economía de la Nueva España, 1680–1809: un análisis a partir de las cajas reales,” Historia Mexicana 34, no. 4 (1985):561–609. One can also consult John J. TePaske, “Economic Cycles in New Spain in the Eighteenth Century: The View from the Public Sector,” Iberian Colonies, New World Societies: Essays in Memory of Charles Gibson, edited by Richard Gardner and William B. Taylor (n.p., 1985), 19–141. For a wider geographical perspective, see Herbert S. Klein, “Las economías de Nueva España y Perú, 1680–1809: la visión a partir de las cajas reales,” Actas del VII Simposio de Historia Económica (Lima: Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, forthcoming).

79. For peninsular income, see Jacques A. Barbier and Herbert S. Klein, “Revolutionary Wars and Public Finances: The Madrid Treasury, 1784–1807,” Journal of Economic History 41, no. 2 (June 1981):315–37; and Jacques A. Barbier, “Peninsular Finance and Colonial Trade: The Dilemma of Charles IV's Spain,” Journal of Latin American Studies 12, pt. 1 (May 1980):21–37. For data from the first half of the eighteenth century, see Jacques A. Barbier, “Towards a New Chronology for Bourbon Colonialism: The ‘Depositaria de Indias’ of Cádiz, 1722–1789,” Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv 6, no. 4 (1980):335–53.

80. For a somewhat varying view, see Leandro Prados de la Escosura, “Comercio exterior y cambio económico en España (1792–1849),” in La economía española al final del antiguo régimen, vol. 3, Comercio y colonias, edited by Josep Fontana Lázaro, 171–249 (Madrid, 1982). For the competition over control of trade, see Jacques A. Barbier, “Imperial Policy towards the Port of Veracruz, 1788–1808: The Struggle between Madrid, Cádiz, and Havana Interests,” in The Economies of Mexico and Peru during the Late Colonial Period, edited by Nils Jacobsen and Hans Jürgen Puhle (Berlin, 1986), 240–51.

81. On the fleet, see Jacques A. Barbier, “Indies Revenues and Naval Spending: The Cost of Colonialism for the Spanish Bourbons, 1763–1805,” Jahrbuch für Geschichte von Staat, Wirtschaft und Gesselschaft Lateinamerikas 21 (1984):171–88.

82. See Brian R. Hamnett, “The Appropriation of Mexican Church Wealth by the Spanish Bourbon Government: The ‘Consolidación de Vales Reales,’ 1805–1809,” Journal of Latin American Studies 1, pt. 2 (Nov. 1969):85–113; Geoffrey A. Cabat, “The Consolidación of 1804 in Guatemala,” The Americas 28, no. 1 (July 1971):20–38; Asunción Lavrin, “The Execution of the Law of Consolidación in New Spain: Economic Aims and Results,” Hispanic American Historical Review 53, no. 1 (Feb. 1973):27–49; La deuda pública de España y la economía novohispana, 1804–1809, edited by H. Masae Sugawara (Mexico City, 1976); John Alexander Jackson, Jr., “The Mexican Silver Schemes: Finance and Profiteering in the Napoleonic Era, 1796–1811,” Ph.D. diss., University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 1978; and Reinhard Liehr, “Staatsverschuldung und Privatkredit: Die ‘Consolidación de Vales Reales’ in Hispanoamerika,” Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv 6, no. 2 (1980):149–85.

83. See, for example, Jacques A. Barbier, “Anglo-American Investors and Payments on Spanish Imperial Treasuries, 1795–1808,” in The North American Role in the Spanish Imperial Economy, 1760–1819, edited by Jacques A. Barbier and Allan J. Kuethe, 134–41 (Manchester, 1984); and three previously cited Barbier articles: “Peninsular Finance and Colonial Trade,” JLAS 12, pt. 1; “Venezuelan ‘Libranzas’, 1788–1807,” The Americas 37, no. 4; and “Towards a New Chronology for Bourbon Colonialism,” Ibero-Amerikanisches Archiv 6, no. 4.

84. For the eighteenth century, a start has been made in Barbier and Klein's previously cited “Revolutionary Wars and Public Finances: The Madrid Treasury, 1784–1807,” Journal of Economic History 41, no. 2; and in their “Las prioridades de un monarca ilustrado: el gasto público bajo el reinado de Carlos III,” Revista de Historia Económica 3, no. 3 (Autumn 1985):473–95. See also José Patricio Merino Navarro, “La Hacienda de Carlos IV,” Hacienda Pública Española 69 (1981):139–82; and Javier Cuenca Esteban, “Ingresos netos del estado español, 1788–1820,” Hacienda Pública Española 69 (1981):183–208.

85. Ramón Carande, Carlos V y sus banqueros, 3 vols. (Madrid, 1943–1967); Modesto Ulloa, La Hacienda Real en Castilla en el reinado de Felipe II (2d. ed.; Madrid, 1977); A. Domínguez Ortiz, Política y Hacienda de Felipe IV (Madrid, 1960); Josep Fontana, La Hacienda en la historia de España (1700–1931) (Madrid, 1980); and Miguel Artola, La Hacienda del antiguo régimen (Madrid, 1982).