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Climate Change and Atoll Island States: Pursuing a ‘Family Resemblance’ Account of Statehood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 October 2016

SUSANNAH WILLCOX
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Abstract

‘Climate change inundation’ – the process whereby climate change-related impacts like rising sea levels, higher storm surges, and changing rainfall patterns interact with and exacerbate existing vulnerabilities like poverty, isolation, resource scarcity, and inadequate infrastructure – presents a unique challenge to the territorial, legal, and political infrastructure of low-lying coral atoll island states. This article uses the example of climate change inundation to illustrate some of the shortcomings of the mainstream ‘minimum threshold’ account of statehood. It then proposes an alternative account of the criteria of statehood as a set of overlapping similarities or relationships between state-like entities, drawing on Wittgenstein's concept of ‘family resemblances’. Although problematic in some respects, this family resemblance account provides a broader conceptual space for assessing the merits of alternative forms of statehood.

Keywords

atoll island stateclimate change inundationfamily resemblancestatehoodWittgenstein
Type
INTERNATIONAL LAW AND PRACTICE
Information
Leiden Journal of International Law , Volume 30 , Issue 1 , March 2017 , pp. 117 - 136
Copyright
Copyright © Foundation of the Leiden Journal of International Law 2016 

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References

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31 Thanks to Delphine Dogot for suggesting this term.

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34 International Law Commission (ILC), Draft Declaration on the Rights and Duties of States: General Debate, UN Doc. A/CN.4/2 (1949), at 259.

35 Ibid.

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41 UNHCR, Summary of Deliberations on Climate Change and Displacement (22–25 February 2011), para. 2 (see also para. 30).

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45 Jennings and Watts, supra note 25, at 131–2.

46 R. Jennings, The Acquisition of Territory in International Law (1963), 7.

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48 Lowe, supra note 33, at 138. Compare Malanczuk, supra note 21, at 75; S.P. Sharma, Territorial Acquisition, Disputes and International Law (1997), 2; Shaw, supra note 8, at 199 and 960.

49 Deutsche Continental Gas-Gesellschaft, supra note 15, at 15; North Sea Continental Shelf Cases, Judgment of 20 February 1969, [1969] ICJ Rep. 3, at 32–3.

50 Crawford, supra note 4, at 47. Crawford cites Sovereignty over Certain Frontier Land (Belgium/Netherlands), Judgment of 20 June 1959, [1959] ICJ Rep. 209, at 212–13 and 229; Right of Passage over Indian Territory (Portugal v. India), Merits, Judgment of 12 April 1960, [1960] ICJ Rep. 6, at 27.

51 In re. Duchy of Sealand, (1989) 80 ILR 683, at 684–5. However, artificial islands do not count. See Arts. 60(1) and (8), 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), 833 UNTS 397.

52 Although the state is not entitled to an exclusive economic zone or continental shelf in respect of these, per Art. 121(3), UNCLOS, supra note 51.

53 CIA, supra note 25. See also Duursma, supra note 25, at Chapters 6 and 8.

54 Grant, supra note 13, at 435. Compare I. Shearer, Starke's International Law (1994), 85.

55 Craven, supra note 21, at 224.

56 Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), Merits, Judgment of 16 March 2001, [2001] ICJ Rep. 40, at para. 206. In rejecting the argument that low-tide elevations that do not lie with the territorial sea of an existing state constitute territory, the ICJ finds that ‘The few existing rules do not justify a general assumption that low-tide elevations are territory in the same sense as islands.’

57 Duchy of Sealand, supra note 51, at 686.

58 McAdam, supra note 7, at 124.

59 Behind the Vatican City (842) and Nauru (9,488). CIA, supra note 25. See further Shaw, supra note 8, 199.

60 UN Doc. A/RES/2869 (XXVI) (1971).

61 Park, supra note 7, at 7.

62 For example, around 57 per cent of Samoans and 46 per cent of Tongans live outside of their country of origin. C. Stahl and R. Appleyard, Migration and Development in the Pacific Islands: Lessons from the New Zealand Experience (2007), 7. See also Malanczuk, supra note 21, at 76.

63 Stoutenburg, supra note 7, at 61. Compare Sharma, supra note 48, at 4.

64 T. Lambourne, Kiribati Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Interviewed on D. Carrick, ‘Climate Change: The Pacific’, ABC Radio National: Law Report, 22 November 2011.

65 Duchy of Sealand, supra note 51, at 686.

66 Crawford, supra note 4, at 55.

67 Island of Palmas Case, supra note 22, at 838. A state's independence is not necessarily compromised by the size of its territory or population, nor by its political or economic co-operation with other states. Duursma, supra note 25, at 125–6.

68 Stoutenburg, supra note 7, at 66. See further J.G. Stoutenburg, Disappearing Island States in International Law (2015), at Section 4.2.3.

69 Crawford, supra note 2, at 129. Craven describes effectiveness as a ‘moveable feast’. Craven, supra note 21, at 226.

70 Crawford, supra note 4, at 63 and 89. See also Thürer, supra note 38, at 752.

71 Shaw, supra note 8, at 203–4. For historical examples, see Park, supra note 7, at 6–7.

72 Crawford, supra note 4, at 668. However, these conclusions have not been tested in the case of climate change inundation. See Stoutenburg, J.G., ‘Review of Jane McAdam (ed.), Climate Change and Displacement: Multidisciplinary Perspectives ’, (2011) 22 EJIL 1196 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 1199.

73 On recognition, see, for example, Berman, N., ‘Sovereignty in Abeyance: Self-Determination and International Law’, (1988–89) 7 Wisconsin International Law Journal 51 Google Scholar, at 81–4; Craven, supra note 21, at 240–6; Crawford, supra note 2, at 143–65; Duursma, supra note 25, at 110–15; Jennings and Watts, supra note 25, at 127–203; Talmon, supra note 42.

74 On the role of recognition in remedying a failure to meet one or more criteria of statehood, see Duursma, supra note 25, at 430; Grant, supra note 13, at 447. On recognition in the context of climate change inundation, see W. Kälin and N. Schrepfer, ‘Protecting People Crossing Borders in the Context of Climate Change: Normative Gaps and Possible Approaches’, (2012) UNHCR Legal and Protection Policy Research Series No. 39; McAdam, supra note 7, at 137–8; Park, supra note 7, at 14; Rayfuse, R., ‘Sea Level Rise and Maritime Zones: Preserving the Maritime Entitlements of “Disappearing” States’, in Gerrard, M. and Wannier, G. (eds.), Threatened Island Nations: Legal Implications of Rising Seas and a Changing Climate (2013), 167 Google Scholar at 177; Stoutenburg, supra note 7; Stoutenburg, supra note 68, at Chapter 6; Wong, supra note 7, at 35–8 and 45.

75 ‘[C]ommon objective operational criteria for the elements of the definition’ of statehood are lacking. G. von Glahn and J. Taulbee, Law Among Nations (2013), 148.

76 Compare Craven, supra note 21, at 221.

77 Grant, supra note 13, at 414.

78 L. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations (1953).

79 Other than the fact that all language is used as language. For Wittgenstein's emphasis on the role of use in determining meaning, see ibid., Section 43.

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83 Ibid., at Section 67.

84 This has not been proposed by legal scholars elsewhere, although some accounts of statehood as a continuum of state-like entities come close. See, for example, Österdahl, supra note 22. Elsewhere, Mark Beissinger argues that the concept of ‘empire’ should be understood in terms of a ‘Wittgensteinian “family resemblance” whose meaning and referents have altered significantly over time’. M. Beissinger, ‘Soviet Empire as “Family Resemblance”’, (2006) 65 Slavic Review 294, at 303. Duncan Bell suggests that ‘it is possible to identify a family resemblance in the preconditions considered essential for successful statehood’, but does not elaborate. Bell, D., ‘The Victorian Idea of the Global State’, in Bell, D. (ed.), Victorian Visions of Global Order (2007), 159 CrossRefGoogle Scholar at 162. Yael Tamir observes that ‘all members within the category “nation” . . . show some family resemblance’, but does not cite Wittgenstein nor stay true to his understanding of family resemblances. Y. Tamir, Liberal Nationalism (1993), 65. James Tully applies Wittgenstein's family resemblance model to political concepts like cultures and constitutions. J. Tully, Strange Multiplicity (1995), 112–13 and 120–2.

85 During the Second World War, the Norwegian government operated in exile and the state of Norway therefore lacked effective control or jurisdiction over its territory.

86 Beissinger, supra note 84, at 297.

87 Crawford, supra note 4, at 45.

88 Ibid., at 88.

89 ILC Draft Declaration on the Rights and Duties of States, supra note 34, at 259. Shearer similarly argues that, ‘Of the term “state” no exact definition is possible.’ Shearer, supra note 54, at 85. Compare Grant, supra note 13, at 408; Higgins, supra note 24, at 39; Knop, supra note 14, at 107.

90 See, for example, M. Burkett, ‘The Nation Ex-Situ: On Climate Change, Deterritorialized Nationhood and the Post-Climate Era’, (2011) 2 Climate Law 345; McAdam, supra note 7, at Chapter 5; Rayfuse, supra note 74; Schofield, C. and Freestone, D., ‘Options to Secure Maritime Jurisdictional Claims in the Face of Global Sea Level Rise’, in Gerrard, M. and Wannier, G. (eds.), Threatened Island Nations: Legal Implications of Rising Seas and a Changing Climate (2013), 141;Google Scholar Stoutenburg, supra note 7; Stoutenburg, supra note 68.

91 Stoutenburg, supra note 7, at 57.

92 See, for example, Schofield and Freestone, supra note 90, at 152–6.

93 Kälin, supra note 40, at 102 and 90–1; Stoutenburg, supra note 7, at 65.

94 Cited in McAdam, supra note 7, at 137.

95 McAdam, supra note 7, at 159.

96 Stoutenburg, supra note 7, at 68; L. Yamamoto and M. Esteban, Atoll Island States and International Law (2014), 176.

97 See generally Talmon, supra note 42, at 215ff.

98 Allied Forces (Czechoslovak) Case, (1941–42) 10 Annual Digest of Public International Law 123, at 124.

99 Stoutenburg, supra note 7, at 69; Stoutenburg, supra note 68, at Section 4.2.3.2. Compare Talmon, supra note 42, at 16 and 146–9.

100 McAdam, supra note 7, at 135.

101 Park, supra note 7, at 6–7; Talmon, supra note 42, at 136; UNHCR, IOM and Norwegian Refugee Council, supra note 28, at 1; Wong, supra note 7, at 21–2.

102 Stoutenburg, supra note 7, at 69.

103 McAdam, supra note 7, at 136–7.

104 Ibid., at 138; Burkett, supra note 90; I. Kelman, ‘Difficult Decisions: Migration from Small Island Developing States under Climate Change’, (2015) 3 Earth's Future 133, at 137; McCullough, S., ‘A Call for a New International Convention to Safeguard the Human Rights of Citizens of Deterritorialised Asia-Pacific Small Island States’, (2015) 26 Colorado Natural Resources, Energy and Environmental Law Review 109;Google Scholar Ödalen, J., ‘Underwater Self-Determination: Sea-Level Rise and Deterritorialized Small Island States’, (2014) 17 Ethics, Policy and Environment 225;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Rayfuse, supra note 74, at 179–80; R. Rayfuse, ‘W(h)ither Tuvalu? International Law and Disappearing States’, (2009) UNSW Faculty of Law Research Series No. 9, at 11–12; Stoutenburg, supra note 7, at 70–2 and 85–7; Stoutenburg, supra note 68, at Section 6.3; Vaha, M., ‘Drowning Under: Small Island States and the Right to Exist’, (2015) 11 Journal of International Political Theory 206 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

105 Burkett, supra note 90.

106 Ibid., at 346. Compare Rayfuse, supra note 104, at 11.

107 Burkett, supra note 90, at 363ff. But see Dietrich, F. and Wündisch, J., ‘Territory Lost: Climate Change and the Violation of Self-Determination Rights’, (2015) 2 Moral Philosophy and Politics 83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

108 See, for example, A. Sundberg, The History and Politics of Diaspora Voting in Home Elections (2007). On the diaspora as the ‘present-tense experience of the deterritorialized nation’, see Burkett, supra note 90, at 359.

109 Burkett, supra note 90, at 367–9.

110 Ibid., at 363ff.

111 This is, however, far from straightforward. In addition to the question of whether maritime baselines can be preserved in the face of rising sea levels, there is also the question of whether a deterritorialized state can continue to exercise jurisdiction over the maritime zones these delimit. For further discussion, see Caron, ‘When Law Makes Climate Change Worse: Rethinking the Law of Baselines in Light of a Rising Sea Level’, (1990) 17 Ecology Law Quarterly 621, at 641–51; Rayfuse, supra note 74, at 181–90; Schofield and Freestone, supra note 90, at 158–63; Soons, supra note 7; Yamamoto and Esteban, supra note 96, at Chapter 5.

112 Rayfuse, supra note 104, at 11; Soons, supra note 7, at 230, note 90. However, on the expense of preserving and managing maritime zones, see Caron, supra note 111, at 639–40; Rayfuse, supra note 104, at 12–13.

113 Kälin and Schrepfer, supra note 74, at 39.

114 McAdam, supra note 7, at 138.

115 SS Wimbledon, PCIJ Rep. Series A No. 1, at 25. On the independence of microstates, see Duursma, supra note 25, at Chapters 4–8; Wong, supra note 7, at 29–31.

116 Grant, supra note 13, at 439–40; Wong, supra note 7, at 26–8, 31 and 40–1.

117 Park, supra note 7, at 7 and 13–14.

118 Crawford, supra note 2, at 127.

119 Grant, supra note 13, at 449.

120 H. Anderson, ‘Kuhn's Account of Family Resemblance: A Solution to the Problem of Wide-Open Texture’, (2000) 52 Erkenntnis 313, at 313. See also Beardsmore, supra note 81; Bellaimey, J., ‘Family Resemblances and the Problem of the Under-Determination of Extension’, (1990) 13 Philosophical Investigations 31 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

121 Grant, supra note 13, at 435.

122 Wittgenstein, supra note 78, at Section 68.

123 Ibid., at Section 67.

124 Bellaimey, supra note 120, at 33–6.

125 Ibid., at 40–3.

126 On the constitutive effect of recognition in this sense, see Duursma, supra note 25, at 430; Grant, supra note 13, at 447; Wong, supra note 7, at 36; Yamamoto and Esteban, supra note 96, at 183 and 212.

127 Wittgenstein, supra note 78, at Section 67.

128 For example, T. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1970); Kuhn, T., ‘The Road Since Structure’, (1991) 2 Philosophy of Science Association 3.Google Scholar See also Anderson, supra note 120.

129 Kuhn, Structure, supra note 128, at 197, note 14.

130 Compare Österdahl, supra note 22, at 60. See also Higgins, supra note 24, at 39; Von Glahn and Taulbee, supra note 75, at 139.

131 Craven, supra note 21, at 159.

132 Österdahl, supra note 22, at 60–1.

133 ILC Draft Declaration on the Rights and Duties of States, supra note 34, at 259.