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Opposition in International Law – Alternativity and Revisibility as Elements of a Legitimacy Concept for Public International Law

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 October 2015

ISABELLE LEY
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Abstract

As international law is widening in regulatory scope and intensity, it arguably suffers from a legitimacy deficit. This article conceives of this deficit as a deficit in possibilities to politicize, criticize, and contest international law-making proposals in the way a loyal opposition does in a domestic constitutional context: through the representation of relevant societal interests, the voicing of critique, and the safeguarding of alternative proposals for the future. The author of this article tries to bring together the current debate in political theory on the value of legitimate disagreement and dissent in political institutions and the ongoing discussion on the legitimacy of international law. Therefore, a concept of an institutionalized opposition for international law-making processes is developed, referencing authors such as Hannah Arendt and Claude Lefort. Next, the author analyses whether one can already find instances of an institutionalized opposition in international law – in parliamentary assemblies and in international agreements which are designed to present a legal–political counterweight to specific legal concepts and institutions.

Keywords

international institutionslaw-makinglegitimacyoppositionpoliticization
Type
INTERNATIONAL LEGAL THEORY
Information
Leiden Journal of International Law , Volume 28 , Issue 4 , December 2015 , pp. 717 - 742
Copyright
Copyright © Foundation of the Leiden Journal of International Law 2015 

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References

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47 H. Arendt, On Revolution (2006 [1963]), at 228; see M. Canovan, Hannah Arendt (1992), at 145, 224.

48 In the European or global spheres, however, democracy theories that do not depart from intersubjectivity or collectivity, but from the individual, are dominant, Bogdandy, A. v., ‘The European Lesson for International Democracy: The Significance of Articles 9–12 EU Treaty for International Organizations’, (2012) 23 (2)EJIL 315CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 315, 323ff.

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52 On the parliamentarization of public international law, see Ch. 12 in Ley, supra note 27.

53 See the comprehensive, so-called Cardoso-Report, UN GA of 11.6.2004, A/58/817.

54 See below (3.3).

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61 See the investigation cited by Habegger, according to which both frontiers of conflict had approximately the same impact on voting between 1983 and 1994; Habegger, supra note 51, at 89. The seating arrangements in the Chamber [during sessions] reflect neither a national, nor a party-political order; instead, members appear as individual representatives. See M. Wittinger, Der Europarat (2005), at 140, para. 129.

62 See, for instance, A. Nothelle, ‘The OSCE Parliamentary Assembly – Driving Reform’, OSCE Yearbook 2006, at 374, 377.

63 Statute of the Council of Europe.

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73 Habegger, supra note 51, at 121, n. 469; Schieder, P., ‘Die Rolle der Fraktionen im Europarat’, in Holtz, U. (Hrsg.), 50 Jahre Europarat (2000)Google Scholar, at 101; against established practice, however, the Committee of Ministers reserved the right to nomination in 2009, in order to nominate someone of high visibility for the position. Subsequently, the PACE refused to confirm the candidate during the first round of voting; press release of the PACE, 29 September 2009, ‘Thorbjørn Jagland elected Secretary General of the Council of Europe’, available at: http://assembly.coe.int/ASP/NEwsManager/EMB_NewsManagerView.asp?ID=4939 (accessed 7 August 2015).

74 See the Co-operation Agreement Concluded between the Parliamentary Assembly and the President of the ICRC – Exchange of Letters, reprinted in the Rules of Procedure of the PACE, at 244 et seq.

75 Schermers and Blokker, supra 72, at § 1725.

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77 Australia, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, and USA.

78 Reprinted in the Rules of Procedure of PACE, at 226–40.

79 But according to Art. VIII (1) of the Rules of Procedure without the right to vote.

80 See the Co-operation Agreement between the organizations: ‘Arrangement entre le Conseil de l'Europe et l'Organisation de Coopération et de Développement Économique’, November 1962, in particular Art. 11–13.

81 Co-operation Agreement Concluded between the Council of Europe and the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development – Exchange of Letters between the President of the Parliamentary Assembly and the President of the EBRD on co-operation between the Assembly and EBRD (1992), reprinted in the Rules of Procedure of the PACE, at 242.

82 Under the auspices of the Committee on Social Affairs, Health and Sustainable Development.

83 See Ley, supra 27, at ch. 14.

84 This impression was confirmed during a telephone interview with with an employee of the Secretariat of the responsible Committee on Social Affairs, Aiste Ramanauskaite. According to her, there is a constant exchange between PACE and the EBRD; the expertise that the Parliamentary Assembly has gained in matters regarding Eastern Europe through its own missions is consulted and used particularly frequently. Thus, the co-operation goes far beyond the annual plenary debate.

85 See the proposals in Res. 1064 (1995), at para. 3.

86 See PACE Res. 1002 (1993), at para. 12: ‘The Assembly questions the need for the Bank to have such an expensive and prestigious headquarters. In order to ensure proper use of taxpayers’ money and to avoid the creation of a negative public image prejudicial to the Bank's work . . ., the Assembly urges the Bank to observe strict standards of cost-effectiveness in its internal administration, and to abstain from all conspicuous forms of representation, and to establish tighter budget controls and auditing of all its operations. The Assembly asks that the auditors’ report following their investigation into allegedly extravagant expenditure by the Bank be made available to its Committee on Economic Affairs and Development’.

87 See the affirmative statement in Res. 1040 (1994), at para. 2 und Res. 1064 (1995), at paras. 1, 2, Res. 1094 (1996), at para. 1, which nevertheless adds the proposal in para. 2 ‘that administrative expenses may be further reduced by making the bank's so far resident board of directors non-resident as well as smaller in size, thereby liberating resources for operational activities’.

88 See Ley, I., ‘Zur Politisierung des Völkerrechts – Parlamentarische Versammlungen im Außenverhältnis’, (2012) 50 Archiv des Völkerrecht 191CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 191–217.

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92 Termed ‘Contested Multilateralism’ by J. Morse and R. Keohane, see J. Morse and R. Keohane, Contested Multilateralism, The Review of International Organizations, March 2014, Open Access Publication, available at: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11558-014-9188-2#page-1 (9 September 2014) (accessed 7 August 2015).

93 For representatives of the abundant literature on the conflict of regimes, see J. Pauwelyn, Conflict of Norms in Public International Law (2003).

94 For a definition of ‘living modified organism’, see CPB Art. 3(g): ‘“Living modified organism” means any living organism that possesses a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology”.

95 See N. Krisch, Beyond Constitutionalism (2010), at 189 et seq.

96 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, 20 October 2005, available at: http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=33232&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html (accessed 7 August 2015).

97 Art. III (2) GATT is of particular relevance, as it stipulates that no internal taxes or charges on imported products shall be levied, if no such taxes or charges are levied on ‘like’ domestic products.

98 Footer, M. and Graber, C., ‘Trade Liberalization and Cultural Policy’, (200) 3 JIEL 115, 119CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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100 See Art. 4(1) (cultural diversity), Art. 4(3) (cultural expressions), Art. 4(4) (cultural activities, goods and services); T. Voon, ‘Cultural Products and the World Trade Organization’, Melbourne Law School Legal Studies Research Paper No. 342, at 19, lists under ‘cultural goods’ films, videos, radio, TV, audio records, books, magazines, newspapers, and related services.

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102 On the course of negotiations during the Uruguay Round with respect to this question, see J. Croome, Reshaping the World Trading System: A History of the Uruguay Round (1999), at 212–15, 243–4, 310–12, 320, 324–27.

103 In terms of international treaty law, these are qualifications in compliance with Art. 19 VCLT.

104 Voon, supra note 100, at 25. See WTO, ‘Services Database: Predefined Report – All Countries’ MFN Exemptions, available at: http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/serv_commitments_e.htm (accessed 7 August 2015).

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107 J. Pauwelyn, ‘The UNESCO Convention on Cultural Diversity, and the WTO’, ASIL Insight, 15 November 2005.

108 See Ruiz-Fabri, supra 105, at 43, 52 et seq.

109 Argued in particular by the Canadian Minister of Education, Sheila Copps; see Azzi, supra note 101, at 765, 768.

110 Azzi, supra note 101, at 765, 767.

111 Canada − Certain Measures Concerning Periodicals, WT/DS31/A/R of 30 July 1997.

112 Azzi, supra note 101, at 765, 767.

113 After the conclusion of a preliminary enquiry; see Preliminary Study on the technical and legal aspects relating to the desirability of a standard-setting instrument on cultural diversity, 12 March 2003 (166 EX/28), available at:http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001297/129718e.pdf (accessed 7 August 2015).

114 Resolution 32C/34 of July 2004 (CLT/CPD/2004/CONF.201/5), available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001356/135650e.pdf (accessed 7 August 2015).

115 Burri-Nenova, M., ‘Trade and Culture’, (2008) 5 Manchester Journal of International Economic Law 3Google Scholar: ‘entered into force on 18 March 2007 after an incredibly swift ratification process’.

116 The USA had left the UNESCO on 31 December 1984; owing to the increasing number of former colonial and socialist states, it perceived the organization as too ideological; in particular, the withdrawal came amid controversies over the New World Information order, which the US saw as an attack on press freedom. The re-entry of the US in 2003 is attributed to the fact that it wanted to influence the formation and contents of the UNESCO Convention.

117 Preliminary Draft of A Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions, UNESCO Doc. CLT/CPD/2004/CONF-201/2 of July 2004, available at: http://www.incd.net/docs/UNESCOdraft04.pdf (accessed 7 August 2015).

118 UNESCO, ‘What were the stages that led to the adoption of the Convention?’, http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/cultural-diversity/cultural-expressions/the-convention/historical-background/what-were-the-stages-that-led-to-the-adoption-of-the-convention/ (26 April 2013) (accessed 7 August 2015)

119 Details on the negotiations can be found in Conrad, Öffentliche Kulturförderung und Welthandelsrecht (2008), at 417–22.

120 According to Art. 29 of the Convention.

121 See http://portal.unesco.org/la/convention.asp?KO=31038&language=E (accessed 7 August 2015).

122 On this Footer and Graber, supra note 98, at 115, 119.

123 Exemption for measures that are necessary for the application of laws and other regulations, provided that they are not inconsistent with the GATT.

124 Exemptions for the protection of national cultural goods of artistic, historic, or archeological value.

125 On the possibilities opened up by the Agreement, see Wouters, J. and de Meester, B., ‘The UNESCO Convention on Cultural Diversity and WTO Law’, (2008) 42 JWT 205Google Scholar; Khachaturian, A., ‘The New Cultural Diversity Convention and its Implications on the WTO International Trade Regime’, (2006) 42 Texas ILJ 191Google Scholar.

126 See Burri-Nenova, supra note 115, at 2.

127 Graber, C., too, demands a ‘procedural interface between the law of the WTO and the CCD’, in his ‘The New UNESCO Convention on Cultural Diversity – A Counterbalance to the WTO?’, (2006) 9 (3)JIEL 553, 571CrossRefGoogle Scholar; on the role that the Intergovernmental Committee of the UNESCO Convention could play, see at 574.

128 Ibid., at 553.

129 See Meidinger, E. E., ‘The New Environmental Law: Forest Certification’, (2002–2003) 10 (1&2)Buffalo Environmental Law Journal 211Google Scholar, at 211–316; Guéneau, S., ‘Certification as A New System of Non-State Global Forest Governance System’, in Peters, A. et al. (eds.), Non-State Actors as Standard Setters (2009)Google Scholar, at 379 et seq.

130 Kimberley Process Certification Scheme, reprinted in the appendix to Kimberley Process Certification Scheme for Rough Diamonds – Request for a Waiver, G/C/W/431, at 6–21; available at: http://www.kimberleyprocess.com/documents/basic_core_documents_en.html (accessed 7 August 2015).

131 See the definition in Section I, Kimberley Process Certification Scheme: ‘ROUGH DIAMONDS mean diamonds that are unworked or simply sawn, cleaved or bruted and fall under the Relevant Harmonised Commodity Description and Coding System 7102.10, 7102.21 and 7102.31’.

132 For a nostalgic obituary, See Koskenniemi, M., ‘The Fate of Public International Law: Between Techniques and Politics’, (2007) 70 Modern Law Review 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 1–30.