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Towards a Postcolonial Genealogy of International Organizations Law

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 September 2018

GUY FITI SINCLAIR Open the ORCID record for GUY FITI SINCLAIR [Opens in a new window]
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Abstract

This article sketches the contours of a postcolonial genealogy of international organizations law. Contrary to conventional accounts, which remain strongly Eurocentric, the article claims that international organizations law did not emerge until the closing stages of the Second World War, and that its evolution was strongly influenced by the accelerating processes of decolonization that accompanied its birth. More specifically, the article argues that the emergence of international organizations law was spurred by a series of perceived problems regarding the adequacy of the international legal system in the aftermath of the end of formal colonial rule, in which the relations of power constructed through colonialism remained profoundly implicated. The politics of decolonization thus shaped the practice of international organizations, provided the catalyst for many of the foundational cases in international organizations law, and motivated much of its early doctrinal scholarship. Moreover, the article argues that the functionalist logic of international organizations law is deeply embedded in a postcolonial imaginary which, by supporting the division of the world into formally equivalent nation-states, ostensibly cuts against the hegemonic territorialism of colonial governance.

Keywords

decolonizationgenealogyhistoryinternational organizations lawpostcolonial
Type
INTERNATIONAL LEGAL THEORY: Symposium on the ‘Trajectories of International Legal Histories’
Information
Leiden Journal of International Law , Volume 31 , Issue 4 , December 2018 , pp. 841 - 869
Copyright
© Foundation of the Leiden Journal of International Law 2018 

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Footnotes

*

B.A., LL.B.(Hons), LL.M.(Hons) (Auck), J.S.D. (NYU) [guy.sinclair@vuw.ac.nz]. The first draft of this article was completed during a delightful sabbatical stay as an External Scientific Fellow at the Max Planck Institute Luxembourg for International, European and Regulatory Procedural Law. Thanks to the Directors of the Institute, and especially Hélène Ruiz Fabri. Different versions of the article were presented to audiences at a Workshop of the ESIL Interest Group on International Organizations, LJIL’s 30th Anniversary Symposium on ‘The Trajectories of International Legal History’, the London School of Economics, the Lauterpacht Centre for International Law at the University of Cambridge, a Symposium on ‘The Dynamic Evolution of International Law’ held at Victoria University of Wellington Faculty of Law, and the Singapore Symposium in Legal Theory. Thanks to the participants in all those events for their questions and criticisms. Special thanks to Davinia Aziz, Eyal Benvenisti, Catherine Brölmann, Damian Chalmers, Megan Donaldson, Edouard Fromageau, Andrew Halpin, Kenneth Keith, Fernando Lusa Bordin, Campbell McLachlan, Sarah Nouwen, Thomas Poole, Surabhi Ranganathan, Gerry Simpson, Tan Hsien-Li, Ingo Venzke and LJIL’s Editors and anonymous reviewers. Thanks also to Georgia Whelan for excellent research assistance. I gratefully acknowledge the support of a University Research Fund grant from Victoria University of Wellington.

References

1 On imperialism and international law see, e.g., Anghie, A., Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (2004)Google Scholar; Pahuja, S., Decolonising International Law (2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On Eurocentrism in histories of international law see Koskenniemi, M., ‘Histories of International Law: Dealing with Eurocentrism’, (2011) 19 Rechtsgeschichte 152CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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3 See also the ‘Forum on International Institutional Law’, (2008) 5 International Organizations Law Review 1.

4 There are no entries for these terms in the indexes of Amerasinghe, supra note 2; Bowett, supra note 2; Klabbers, J., An Introduction to International Institutional Law (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Schermers, H.G. and Blokker, N.M., International Institutional Law: Unity Within Diversity (2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Schermers and Blokker has one entry for ‘colonies’. Reuter, supra note 2, is unusual in discussing colonization as a stage in the historical evolution of international relations and international institutions before the Second world War (at 59–61); he also notes a group of international organizations in the period before 1919 that were ‘clearly connected with temporary situations of a colonial type’ (at 207).

5 This article does not address the question of whether international organizations law is best described as a discipline, sub-discipline, field, or branch of international law; it uses these descriptors interchangeably.

6 On the dangers of the terms ‘postcolonial’ and ‘postcolonialism’ see Shohat, E., ‘Notes on the “Post-Colonial”’, (1992) Social Text 99CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McClintock, A., ‘The Angel of Progress: Pitfalls of the Term “Post-Colonialism”’, (1992) Social Text 84CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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8 The processes of post-war decolonization can hardly be separated from the emergence of welfare states, global markets, or the Cold War over the same period. Separate genealogies of international organizations law could be constructed focused on each of these phenomena.

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22 See, e.g., Reuter, supra note 2, 214–18; Detter, I., Law Making by International Organizations (1965), 19Google Scholar; Schermers and Blokker, supra note 4, at 37. The element of legal capacity or will is sometimes articulated as a question of international legal personality. See, e.g., ILC, supra note 14, Art. 2(a) (defining ‘international organization’ as ‘an organization established by a treaty or other instrument governed by international law and possessing its own international legal personality.’ The definition continues: ‘International organizations may include as members, in addition to States, other entities’).

23 Schermers, supra note 18, at 2.

24 See especially Section 6 below.

25 Not all international organizations lawyers share this orientation, however: see, e.g., Klabbers, supra note 21; and Alvarez, supra note 12.

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30 The contributions of these scholars are well summarized in Klabbers, supra note 10.

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40 Jurisdiction of the European Commission of Danube between Galatz and Braila, Advisory Opinion, 1927, PCIJ Series B No. 14, at 64; see also at 57, using the term ‘international organization’ to refer to the Commission.

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62 Ibid., Art. 57.

63 IBRD Articles, Art. V, s. 8 (see also Art. V, s. 2., s. 6); IMF Articles, Art. XII (see also Art. XII, s. 2(iv)).

64 International Organizations Immunities Act, Pub. L. 79–291, 59 Stat. 669, H.R. 4489, enacted December 29, 1945, s. 1, s. 2. See generally Preuss, L., ‘The International Organizations Immunities Act’, (1946) 40 AJIL 332CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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75 Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa), Advisory Opinion of 21 June 1971, [1971] ICJ Rep. 16.

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77 Jenks, supra note 68, at 267 (noting the existence of ‘a considerable amount of controversy’ on this question). Also see generally Bederman, D.J., ‘The Souls of International Organizations: Legal Personality and the Lighthouse at Cape Spartel’, (1996) 36 Virginia Journal of International Law 275Google Scholar.

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87 Ibid., Arts. 75, 76(b); see generally Chs. XII and XIII.

88 Ibid., Art. 73; see generally Ch. XI.

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96 See especially preamble, Arts. 13, 55.

97 IMF Articles of Agreement, Art. I; IBRD Articles of Agreement, Art. I.

98 UNGA Res. 1803 (XVII) (14 December 1962), UN Doc. A/ RES/ 1803(XVII) Art. 2, [1], [7].

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104 Ibid., at 9.

105 Ibid., at 33.

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107 The first two peacekeeping operations were the UN Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO), established in May 1948 to supervise the truce between Arab and Israeli forces after the termination of the British Mandate of Palestine; and the UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP), established in January 1949. The first armed peacekeeping operation was the UN Emergency Force (UNEF), established in 1956. Subsequent operations were established in Lebanon (1958), the Congo (1960), West New Guinea (1962), Yemen (1963), Cyprus (1964), and the Dominican Republic (1965).

108 See generally Sinclair, supra note 9, at 146, 153, 155. As I have argued, peacekeeping simultaneously provided occasions for the formulation of new rationales and techniques of international executive rule. Ibid., at 160–98.

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117 Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia, supra note 75.

118 Ibid.; International Status of South-West Africa and Judgments of the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO upon complaints made against the UNESCO, supra note 116; South West Africa Cases (Ethiopia v. South Africa; Liberia v. South Africa), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 21 December 1962, [1962] ICJ Rep. 319.

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130 See above Bowett, supra note 2, at xi. Despite being somewhat lightly referenced, Bowett’s first edition cited Koo (at 325, fn 37); Singh (at 315, fn 9); Bedjaoui (at 92); and Anand (at 269).

131 Koo, supra note 120, at 3. On the equality of states and international organizations see also Boutros-Ghali, B., ‘Le principe d’égalité des états et les organisations internationales’, (1960) 100 (II) Recueil des Cours 1Google Scholar.

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138 Ibid., at 2.

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143 It should be clear that this article focuses narrowly on the functionalism associated with international organizations law. ‘Functionalism’ has a range of meanings in the social and political science; some are quite compatible with colonialism, while others envisage the eventual disappearance of nation-states as sovereignty is split into discrete specialist functions. See generally Long, D., ‘International Functionalism and the Politics of Forgetting’, (1993) 48 International Journal 355CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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145 For example, it is hardly possible to characterize the work of the UN as merely apolitical or technical.

146 Kazansky, P., ‘Les premiers éléments de l’organisation universelle’, (1897) 29 Revue de Droit International et de Législation Comparée 238, at 241 and 247Google Scholar.

147 Kazansky, supra note 47, at 367.

148 Kazansky, supra note 146, at 239.

149 Reinsch, supra note 52, at 5.

150 Ibid., at 5.

151 Ibid., at 11.

152 Potter, supra note 55, at 16–17. The same passage appears, with only minor differences, in the 1922 edition. Also see Goodspeed, supra note 56, at 3–4.

153 Shotwell, J.T., At the Paris Peace Conference (1937), 199, 205Google Scholar.

154 Competence of the ILO in regard to International Regulation of the Conditions of Labour of Persons Employed in Agriculture, Proceedings, 5 July 1922, Annex 25c, at 218 (Speech by M.J. Maenhaut, representing the International Agricultural Commission).

155 Competence of the ILO in regard to International Regulation of the Conditions of Labour of Persons Employed in Agriculture, Proceedings, 3 August 1922, Annex 37, at 299 (Speech by M.A. de LaPradelle, representing the French Government).

156 Competence of the ILO in regard to International Regulation of the Conditions of Labour of Persons Employed in Agriculture, Proceedings, 6 July 1922, PCIJ (ser. C), No. 1, Annex 26, at 268 (speech by M. Albert Thomas).

157 Commission to Study the Organization of Peace, ‘Preliminary Report’ (April 1941) 359 International Conciliation, 195, 198–9Google Scholar.

158 Mitrany, D., The Progress of International Government (1933), 135Google Scholar.

159 Mitrany, D., ‘The Functional Approach to World Organization’, (1948) 24 International Affairs 350, at 352–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

160 Mitrany, D., A Working Peace System (1946), 6Google Scholar.

161 Jenks, supra note 68, at 270.

162 Reparation for Injuries, supra note 73, at 179.

163 Ibid., at 180.

164 Ahluwalia, supra note 124, at 199. See also UN Charter, supra note 60, Art. 105; 1946 Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, 1 UNTS 15, at preamble; Art. IV, s. 11 and 14; and Art. VI, s. 22.

165 Jurisdiction of the European Commission of the Danube, supra note 40, at 64.

166 Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict, Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996, [1996] ICJ Rep. 66, at 78. See also Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the WHO and Egypt, Advisory Opinion of 20 December 1980, [1980] ICJ Rep. 99, at 103 (Judge Gros, Separate Opinion) (‘In the absence of a “super-State”, each international organization has only the competence which has been conferred on it by the States which founded it, and its powers are strictly limited to whatever is necessary to perform the functions which its constitutive charter has defined. This is thus a compétence d’attribution, i.e., only such competence as States have “attributed” to the organization.’).

167 Shihata, I.F.I., ‘The Dynamic Evolution of International Organizations: The Case of the World Bank’, (2000) 2 Journal of the History of International Law 217, at 221CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

168 Khan, supra note 128, at 214.

169 Kunz, J.L., ‘The Changing Law of Nations’, (1957) 51 AJIL 77, at 82CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

170 Among progressive international lawyers, Jenks was notably sympathetic to non-Western views, yet he also expressed concern with the ‘psychology of newly won independence’, which was ‘sometimes inclined to take a high view of the prerogatives of sovereignty’. Jenks, C.W., The Common Law of Mankind (1958), 29Google Scholar.

171 Fox, A.B., ‘International Organization for Colonial Development’, (1951) 3 World Politics 340, 343CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

172 Jenks, supra note 170, at 22 (describing international organizations law as ‘the law governing the constitutional framework of a developing world community’).

173 Lazarus, N., ‘“Third Worldism” and the Political Imaginary of Postcolonial Studies’, in Huggan, G. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Postcolonial Studies (2013), Ch. 14Google Scholar.

174 Also consider the postcolonial backgrounds to significant cases such as Interpretation of the Agreement between the WHO and Egypt, supra note 166; Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons, supra note 166; and Case Concerning East Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment of 30 June 1995, [1995] ICJ Rep. 90.

175 See, e.g., Chimni, B.S., ‘International Institutions Today: An Imperial Global State in the Making’, (2004) 15 EJIL 1CrossRefGoogle Scholar. In this sense, the works by global South scholars discussed in Section 5 of this article are representative of the ‘first wave’ of Third World approaches to international law. See generally Anghie, A., ‘TWAIL: Past and Future’, (2008) 10 International Community Law Review 479CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

176 Pahuja, supra note 1, at 47.

177 Slaughter, supra note 46; Harrison, G., The World Bank and Africa: The Construction of Governance States (2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.