Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T04:28:27.497Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Genesis of chemical sediments in Birimian greenstone belts: evidence from gondites and related manganese-bearing rocks from Northern Ghana

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 July 2018

Frank Melcher
Frank Melcher*
Affiliation:
Institute of Geological Sciences, Mining University, A-8700 Leoben, Austria
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Early Proterozoic chemical sediments of the Birimian Supergroup in northern Ghana host several types of metamorphosed manganese-bearing rocks. Differences in the mineralogy and geochemistry can be attributed to facies changes in a mixed volcanic-volcaniclastic depositional environment. Manganese oxide-bearing phyllite, which is enriched in transition metals (Cu, Ni, Co, Zn), formed on the flanks of submarine volcanic edifices above an oxidation boundary. Towards the deeper basin, manganese silicate-rich gondites occur. These consist either of spessartine + quartz + ilmenite, or of spessartine + quartz + Mn amphiboles ± rhodonite ± hyalophane ± Mn stilpnomelane ± ilmenite. The Mn amphiboles are identified as manganoan actinolite, tirodite, and dannemorite. Sulphides are widespread as premetamorphic inclusions in Mn garnet grains. In the basin centre, chlorite schist containing garnet with 50–60 mol.% spessartine represents the most distal manganese-bearing rock which is highly diluted by volcanogenic background sedimentation. The origin of Mn-rich rocks is explained by heat-driven seawater convection systems active in submarine volcanic centres that provided hydrothermal solutions. Precipitation of different minerals depended on the geochemical conditions prevailing on the seafloor. During the Eburnean event (around 2000 Ma), the chemical sediments were metamorphosed to upper greenschist or lower amphibolite facies. Mineral assemblages in the gondites point to metamorphic conditions in the range of 450–500°C at 2–3 kbar.

Keywords

gonditemanganese phyllitehydrothermal activityNangodi beltLawra beltGhanaBirimian Supergroup
Type
Geochemistry
Information
Mineralogical Magazine , Volume 59 , Issue 395 , June 1995 , pp. 229 - 251
Copyright
Copyright © The Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland 1995

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

In memory of Dr Alfred Leube (1926–1994).

References

Abouchami, W., Boher, M., Michard, A. and Albarede, F. (1990) A major 2. 1 Ga event of mafic magmatism in West Africa: an early stage of crustal accretion. J. Geophys. Res., 95, 17605–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abrecht, J. (1989) A hydrothermal manganiferous sulfide assemblage in Carboniferous volcanic rocks of the central Aar massif (Switzerland). Schweiz. mineral, petrogr. Mitt., 69, 117–128.Google Scholar
Attoh, K. (1982) Structure, gravity models and stratigraphy of an early Proterozoic volcanic-sedimentray belt in northeastern Ghana. Precamb. Res., 18, 275–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bence, A.E. and Albee, A.L. (1968) Empirical correction factors for the electron microanalysis of silicates and oxides. J. GeoL, 76, 382–403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bhattacharyya, P.K., Dasgupta, S., Fukuoka, M. and Roy, S. (1984) Geochemistry of braunite and associated phases in metamorphosed non-calcareous manganese ores in India. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol, 87, 65–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bjerg, S.C., Mogessie, A. and Bjerg, E. (1992) HYPER-FORM — a HyperCard program for Macintosh microcomputers to calculate mineral formulae from electron microprobe and wet chemical analysis. Computers & Geosci., 18, 717–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bilgrami, S.A. (1956) Manganese silicate minerals from Chikla, Bhandara district, India. Mineral. Mag., 31, 236–44.Google Scholar
Bonatti, E., Zerbi, M., Kay, R. and Rydell, H. (1976) Metalliferous deposits from the Apennine ophiolites: Mesozoic equivalents of modern deposits from oceanic spreading centers. GeoL Soc. Amer. Bull., 87, 83–94.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, Ch. (1992) Recognition of a Birimian ophiolite allochthon in the Nangodi Greenstone Belt, N.E. Ghana. Geol. Soc. Africa, 9th Int. GeoL Conf., Regional Trends in African Geology, Nov. 1992, Program and Abstracts, 10-11, Accra, Ghana.Google Scholar
Choubert, B. (1973) Occurrences of manganese in the Guianas (South America) and their relation with fundamental structures. UNESCO, Earth Sci. Ser., 9, 115–24.Google Scholar
Dasgupta, H.C. and Manickavasagam, R.M. (1981) Regional metamorphism of non-calcareous manga-niferous sediments from India and the related petrogenetic grid for a part of the system Mn-Fe-Si-O. J. Petrol., 22, 363–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dasgupta, S., Banerjee, H., Fukuoka, M., Bhattacharya, P.K. and Roy, S. (1990) Petrogenesis of metamorphosed manganese deposits and the nature of the precursor sediments. Ore Geol. Rev., 5, 359–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dasgupta, S., Bhattacharya, P.K., Chattopadhyay, G., Banerjee, H., Majumdar, N., Fukuoka, M. and Roy, S. (1988) Petrology of Mg-Mn amphibole-bearing assemblages in manganese silicate rocks of the Sausar Group, India. Mineral. Mag., 52, 105–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dasgupta, S., Fukuoka, M. and Roy, S. (1984) Hematite-pyrophanite intergrowth in gondite, Chikla area, Sausar Group, India. Mineral. Mag., 48, 558–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dasgupta, S., Roy, S. and Fukuoka, M. (1992) Depositional models for manganese oxide and carbonate deposits of the Precambrian Sausar Group, India. Econ. GeoL, 87, 1412–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eggleton, R.A. and Chappell, B.W. (1978) The crystal structure of stilpnomelane. Part III: Chemistry and physical properties. Mineral. Mag., 42, 361–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flohr, M.J.K. (1992) Geochemistry and origin of the Bald Knob manganese deposit, North Carolina. Econ. Geol, 87, 2023–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Force, E.R. and Cannon, W.F. (1988) Depositional model for shallow-marine manganese deposits around black shale basins. Econ. GeoL, 83, 93–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frost, M.T., Grey, I.E., Harrowfield, I.R. and Mason, K. (1983) The dependence of alumina and silica contents on the extent of alteration of weathered ilmenites from Western Australia. Mineral. Mag., 47, 201–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardiner, W.W. and Venugopal, D.V. (1992) Spessar-tine-quartz rock (coticule) occurrences in New Brunsvick, Canada, and their use in exploration for massive sulphide, tin—tungsten and gold deposits. Trans. Instn. Mining Metall. (Sect. B: Appl. Earth Sci.), 101, 147–57.Google Scholar
Ghose, S. and Hexiong, Y. (1989) Mn-Mg distribution on a C2/m manganoan cummingtonite: crystal-chemical considerations. Amer. Mineral., 74, 1091–6.Google Scholar
Goodwin, A.M. (1991) Precambrian Geology. The dynamic evolution of the continental crust. Academic Press, London, 666 pp.Google Scholar
Hashimoto, M., Funakoshi, R. and Kusakabe, K. (1990) Manganese-rich amphibole from quartz schists of the Iimori district, Sambagawa terrane, Wakayama. Ganko, 85, 481-7.Google Scholar
Hirdes, W. and Leube, A. (1989) On gold mineralization of the Proterozoic Birimian Supergroup in Ghana/ West Africa. Unpubl. report, 179 pp., Bundesanstalt fiir Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Hannover (BGR Archive No. 104248). Hirdes, W., Davis, D.W. and Eisenlohr, B.N. (1992) Reassessment of Proterozoic granitoid ages in Ghana on the basis of U/Pb zircon and monazite dating. Precamb. Res., 56, 89–96.Google Scholar
Hsu, L.C. (1968) Selected phase relationships in the system Al-Mn-Fe-Si-O-H: A model for garnet equilibria. J. Petrol, 9, 40–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huebner, J.S. (1986) Nature of phases synthesized along the join (Mg,Mn)2Si2Of,. Amer. Mineral., 71, 111–22.Google Scholar
Huebner, J.S., Flohr, M.J.K. and Grossman, J.N. (1992) Chemical fluxes and origin of a manganese carbonate-oxide-silicate deposit in bedded chert. Chem. Geol, 100, 93–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jaffe, H.W., Meyer, W.O.J.G. and Selchow, D.H. (1961) Manganoan cummingtonite from Nsuta, Ghana. Amer. Mineral, 46, 642–53.Google Scholar
Jakob, J. (1933) Die Manganerzlagerstatten zwischen Val d'Err und Roffna (Oberhalbstein), ihre Be-gleitminerale und ihre Genesis. Sckweiz. mineral, petrogr. Mitt., 13, 17–39.Google Scholar
Janeczek, J. (1989) Manganoan fayalite and products of its alteration from the Strzegom pegmatites, Poland. Mineral. Mag., 53, 315–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kesse, G.O. (1976) The Manganese Ore Deposits of Ghana. Ghana Geol. Survey Bull, 44.Google Scholar
Kesse, G.O. (1985) The mineral and rock resources of Ghana. A.A, Balkema, Rotterdam & Boston, 610 pp.Google Scholar
Klein, C. (1964) Cummingtonite-grunerite series: a chemical, optical and X-ray study. Amer. Mineral, 49, 963–82.Google Scholar
Klein, C. (1966) Mineralogy and petrology of the metamorphosed Wabush Iron Formation, south-western Labrador. J. Petrol, 7, 240–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, C. (1983) Diagenesis and metamorphism of Precambrian banded iron-formations. In Iron-Formation: Facts and Problems (Trendall, A.F. and Morris, R.C. eds.). Elsevier, 417-69.Google Scholar
Kleinschrot, D., Klemd, R., Brocker, M., Okrusch, M., Franz, L. and Schmidt, K. (1993) The Nsuta Manganese Deposit, Ghana: Geological Setting, Ore-forming Process and Metamorphic Evolution. Z. Angew. Geol, 39, 48–50.Google Scholar
Kramm, U. (1976) The coticule rocks (spessartine quartzites) of the Venn-Stavelot Massif, Ardennes, a volcanoclastic metasediment. Contrib. Mineral Petrol, 56, 135–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krosse, S. and Schreyer, W. (1993) Comparative geochemistry of coticules (spessartine-quartzites) and their red schist country rocks in the Ordovician of the Ardennes Mountains, Belgium. Chem. Erde, 53, 1–20.Google Scholar
Leake, B.E. (1978) Nomenclature of amphiboles. Mineral. Mag., 42, 533–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leube, A., Hirdes, W., Mauer, R. and Kesse, G.O. (1990) The early Proterozoic Birimian Supergroup of Ghana and some aspects of its associated gold mineralization. Precamb. Res., 46, 139–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liu, J. (1987) Gold deposits in Precambrian iron-bearing formations-a case study of the Dongfenshan gold deposits in Heilongshang Province. Dizhi Xuebao (Ada Geolog. Sinica), 61, 58–71.Google Scholar
Maresch, W.V. and Czank, M. (1988) Crystal chemistry, growth kinetics and phase relationships of structurally disordered (Mn2+,Mg)-amphiboles. Fortschr. Mineral, 66, 69–121.Google Scholar
Maresch, W.V. and Mottana, A. (1976) The pyroxman-gite-rhodonite transformation for the MnSiO3 composition. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol, 55, 69–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McSwiggen, P.L., Morey, G.B. and Cleland, J.M. (1994) Occurrence and genetic implications of hyalophane in manganese-rich iron-formation, Cuyuna Iron Range, Minnesota, USA. Mineral. Mag., 58, 387–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Melcher, F. (1991) Fe-Ti-oxide assemblages in the basal parts of the Central Alpine Brenner Mesozoic, Tyrol/ Austria. Mineral. Petrol, 44, 197–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Melcher, F. (1993) Gold mineralization in Birimian (Lower Proterozoic) greenstone belts of northern Ghana: the significance of chemical sediments. Ph.D. thesis (unpublished), 304 pp., Mining University, Leoben.Google Scholar
Melcher, F. and Stumpfl, E.F. (1992) Chemical facies and gold mineralization in northern Ghana. Berichte zur Lagerstatten-und Rohstqfforschung, 13, 233 pp., 51 Fig., 23 Tab., 37 p. Appendices.Google Scholar
Melcher, F. and Stumpfl, E.F. (1993) Chemical facies and gold mineralization in northern Ghana. Z. Angew. Geol, 39, 43–6.Google Scholar
Melcher, F. and Stumpfl, E.F. (1994) Paleoproterozoic exhalite formation in northern Ghana: Source of epigenetic gold-quartz vein mineralization. Geol. Jahrb., D100, 201–46, Hannover.Google Scholar
Milesi, J.P., Feybesse, J.L., Ledru, P., Dommanget, A., Quedrago, M.F., Marcoux, E., Prost, A., Vinchon, C, Sylvain, J.P., Johan, V., Tegyey, M., Calvez, J.P. and Lagny, Ph. (1989) West African gold deposits in their Lower Proterozoic lithostructural setting. Chron. rech. min. Fr., 497, 3–98, Orleans.Google Scholar
Miyano, T. and Klein, C. (1989) Phase equilibria in the system K2O-FeO-MgO-Al2O3-SiO2-H2O-CO2 and the stability limit of stilpnomelane in metamorphosed Precambrian iron-formations. Contrib. Mineral Petrol, 102, 478–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mogessie, A. and Tessadri, R. (1982) A BASIC computer program to determine the name of an amphibole from an electron microprobe analysis. Geol. Palaontol. Mitt. Innsbruck, 11, 259–89.Google Scholar
Mogessie, A., Tessadri, R. and Veltman, C.B. (1990) EMP-Amph-a HyperCard program to determine the name of an amphibole from electron microprobe analysis according to the International Mineralogical Association Scheme. Computers & Geosci., 16, 309–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mosier, D.L. and Page, N.J. (1988) Descriptive and grade-tonnage models of volcanogenic manganese deposits in oceanic environments-a modification. U.S. Geol Surv. Bull, 1811, 28 pp.Google Scholar
Miicke, A. and Bhadra Chaudhuri, J.N. (1991) The continuous alteration of ilmenite through pseudo-rutile to leucoxene. Ore Geol Rev., 6, 25–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miicke, A. and Okujeni, C. (1984) Geological and ore microscopic evidence on the epigenetic origin of the manganese occurrences in northern Nigeria. J. Afr. EarthSci., 2, 209-25.Google Scholar
Neumann, U. (1988) Mineralogie und Genese der Manganvorkommen in den Schiefergiirteln von Nord-Nigeria. Ph.D. thesis (unpublished), 227 pp., Universitat Go'ttingen. Oen, I.S., De Maesschalck, A.A. and Lustenhouwer, W.J. (1986) Mid-Proterozoic exhalative-sedimentary Mn skarns containing possible microbial fossils, Grythyttan, Bergslagen, Sweden. Econ, Gepl., 81, 1533–43.Google Scholar
Ostwald, J. (1988) Mineralogy of the Groote Eylandt manganese oxides: a review. Ore Geol. Rev., 4, 3–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pan, Y. and Fleet, M.E. (1993) Mineralogy and genesis of calc-silicates associated with Archean volcano-genie massive sulfide deposits at the Manitouwadge mining camp, Ontario. Can. J. Earth Sci., 29, 1375–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perseil, E.A. and Grandin, G. (1978) Evolution mineralogique du manganese dans trois gisements d'Afrique de l'Ouest: Mokta, Tambao, Nsuta. Mineral. Deposita, 13, 295–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peters, Tj., Valarelli, J.V. Coutinho, J. M. V., Sommerauer, J. and Raumer, J. V. (1977) The manganese deposits of Buritirama (Para, Brazil). Schweiz. mineral, petrogr. Mitt., 57, 313–27.Google Scholar
Petters, S.W. (1991) Regional Geology of Africa. Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences, 40, 722 pp., Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Pownceby, ML, Wall, V.J. and O'Neill, H.St.C. (1987) Fe-Mn partitioning between garnet and ilmenite: experimental calibration and applications. Contrib. Mineral. Petrol, 97, 116–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robertson, A.H.F. and Hudson, J.D. (1973) Cyprus umbers: Chemical precipitates on a Tethyan ocean ridge. Earth Planet. Sci. Let, 18, 93–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, P., Spear, F.S., Schumacher, J.C., Laird, J., Klein, C, Evans, B.W. and Doolan, B.L. (1982) Phase relations of metamorphic amphiboles: natural occurrence and theory. Reviews in Mineral, 9B, 1–227.Google Scholar
Roudakov, V.M. (1965) Report on the geology and minerals of the north-western part of the Wa field sheet. Ghana Geol. Survey Dept., Archive Report, 50, 95 pp. Published by Minerals Commission/GTZ Publication Project, Accra, Ghana, 1991.Google Scholar
Roy, S. (1965) Comparative study of the meta-morphosed manganese protores of the world — the problem of the nomenclature of the gondites and kodurites. Econ. Geol, 60, 1238–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roy, S. (1968) Mineralogy of the different genetic types of manganese deposits. Econ. Geol, 63, 760–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roy, S. (1973) Genetic studies on the Precambrian manganese formations of India with particular reference to the effects of metamorphism. UN-ESCO, Earth Science Series, 9, 229–42.Google Scholar
Roy, S. (1974) Manganese-bearing silicate minerals from metamorphosed manganese formations of India. Ill Tirodite. Acta M'meralogica-Petrographica, 21, 269-73.Google Scholar
Szeged, Hungaria. Roy, S. (1981) Manganese deposits. Academic Press, London, 458 pp.Google Scholar
Roy, S. and Purkait, P.K. (1968) Mineralogy and genesis of the metamorphosed manganese silicate rocks (gondite) of Gowari Wadhona, Madhya Pradesh, India. Contrib. Mineral Petrol, 20, 86–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roy, S., Bandopadhyay, P.C., Perseil, E.A. and Fukuoka, M. (1990) Late diagenetic changes in manganese ores of the Upper Proterozoic Penganga Group, India. Ore Geol. Rev., 5, 341–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rozendaal, A. and Stumpfl, E.F. (1984) Mineral chemistry and genesis of the Gamsberg zinc deposit, South Africa. Trans. Instn. Min. Metall. (Section B: Appl. Earth Sci.), 93, 161–75.Google Scholar
Segeler, C.G. (1961) First U.S. occurrence of manganoan cummingtonite, tirodite. Amer. Mineral, 46, 637–41.Google Scholar
Sivaprakash, C. (1980) Mineralogy of manganese deposits of Koduru and Garbham, Andhra Pradesh, India. Econ. Geol., 75, 1083–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slack, J.F., Palmer, M.R., Stevens, B.P.J., and Barnes, R.G. (1993) Origin and significance of tourmaline-rich rocks in the Broken Hill District, Australia. Econ. Geol, 88, 505–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sorem, R.K. and Cameron, E..N. (1960) Manganese oxides and associated minerals of the Nsuta manganese deposits, Ghana, West Africa. Econ. Geol, 55, 278–310.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spry, P.G. and Wonder, J.D. (1989) Manganese-rich garnet rocks associated with the Broken Hill lead-zine-silver deposit, New South Wales, Australia. Can. Mineral, 27, 275–92.Google Scholar
Sylvester, PJ. and Attoh, K. (1992) Lithostratigraphy and composition of 2. 1 Ga greenstone belts of the West African craton and their bearing on crustal evolution and the Archean—Proterozoic boundary. J. Geol, 100, 377-93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, P.N., Moorbath, S.., Leube, A. and Hirdes, W, (1992) Early Proterozoic crustal evolution in the Birimian of Ghana: constraints from geochronology and isotope geochemistry. Prec. Res., 56, 97–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toth, J.R. (1980) Deposition of submarine crusts rich in manganese and iron. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull, 91, p, 44–54.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Viswanathan, K. and Kielhorn, H.M. (1983) Variations in the chemical composition and lattice dimensions of (Ba,K,Na)-feldspars from Otjosondu, Namibia and their significance. Amer. Mineral, 68, 112–21.Google Scholar
Winkler, H.G.F. (1974) Petrogenesis of metamorphic rocks. 3rd edition, Springer-Verlag, New York, 320 pp.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Winter, G.A., Essene, E.J. and Peacor, D.R. (1981) Carbonates and pyroxenoids from the manganese deposit near Bald Knob, North Carolina. Amer. Mineral, 66, 278–89.Google Scholar
Wonder, J.D., Spry, P.G. and Windom, K.E. (1988) Geochemistry and origin of manganese-rich rocks related to iron-formation and sulfide deposits, Western Georgia. Econ. Geol, 83, 1070–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Worthing, M.A. (1987) Deerite from Papua New Guinea. Mineral. Mag., 51, 689–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar