Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T13:50:14.874Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Compradors, Neo-colonialism, and Transnational Class Struggle: PRC relations with Algeria and India, 1953–1965

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 August 2020

ANTON HARDER Open the ORCID record for ANTON HARDER [Opens in a new window]
ANTON HARDER*
Affiliation:
University of Nottingham Email: anton.harder@gmail.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study of China's relations with Algeria and India shows that the Mao-era emphasis on the transnational function of class made it fundamentally sceptical of the privileged status of the nation-state and transformed Beijing's posture towards the Third World in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Beijing's sense of a growing matrix of transnational class forces damaged relations with India, a key Third World moderate, and spurred closer ties with non-state, revolutionary movements like the Algerian Front Libération Nationale (FLN). Thus Beijing retreated from the post-Korean War phase of moderate diplomacy during which it had eschewed support for revolution abroad under the rhetoric of the ‘Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence’. This article relates Beijing's class analysis of the growing challenges in its relations with India to the arc of interactions between the communist Chinese, the FLN revolutionaries, and the newly post-colonial Algeria. It demonstrates that because of Beijing's understanding of how the domestic class category ‘comprador’ facilitated ‘neo-colonialism’ (an emerging Third World concept), China's anti-imperialism must be understood through its perception of the transnational function of class forces. This understanding of the post-colonial dilemma—how far to maintain or sever ties with the West, which grew partly from Chinese perceptions of Indian politics—explains the curious difficulty that Beijing faced in maintaining cooperative relations with many newly independent nations like Algeria. The emphasis on transnational class struggle also provides an interpretation of Beijing's foreign policy which is intimately linked to domestic politics and affirms the contribution of ideology to the Sino-Soviet split.

Type
Research Article
Information
Modern Asian Studies , Volume 55 , Issue 4 , July 2021 , pp. 1227 - 1267
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Zhou enlai zongli yu a'erjiliya zhuhua waijiao shituan tuanzhang de tanhua jilu [Record of talks between Premier Zhou and Head of Algerian representative delegations in China], 8 June 1961, Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (CMFA), 107-00970-03.

2 Fravel, M. T., Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation and Conflict in China's Territorial Disputes (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008), pp. 194–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Editorial group of the history of the defensive war on the Sino-Indian border, Zhongyin bianjing ziwei fanji zuozhanshi [History of the defensive war on the Sino-Indian border] (N.p.: Military Science Publishing House, 1993).

4 ‘20 December 1963’, Zhou Enlai Nianpu 1949–1976 [Chronicle of Zhou Enlai 1949–1976] (hereafter ZELNP), (Central Party Documents, 1997 [digital edition]).

5 ‘26 December 1963’, ZELNP.

6 K. Haddad-Fonda, ‘Zhou Enlai's “African Safari” (1963–1964)’, 2 August 2017, https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/zhou-enlais-african-safari-1963-1964/, [last accessed 15 June 2020].

7 J. Y. S. Sun, ‘“Now the Cry was Communism”: The Cold War and Kenya's Relations with China, 1964–70’, Cold War History, 6 June 2019, https://doi.org/10.1080/14682745.2019.1602120, [last accessed 15 June 2020], p. 4.

8 Gregg Brazinsky, ‘Showcasing the Chinese Version of Moderni-tea in Africa: Tea Plantations and PRC Economic Aid to Guinea and Mali during the 1960s’, Cold War International History Project Working Paper 80, July 2016.

9 Brazinsky, G. A., Winning the Third World: Sino-American Rivalry during the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2017), pp. 129–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The United States had been trying to prevent Beijing developing ties with pre-existing states in Africa such as Liberia and Ghana in 1956–57.

10 Zhiguang, Yin, ‘“People are God”. Third World Internationalism and Chinese Muslims in the Making of the National Recognition in the 1950s’, Istanbul Universitesi Sosyoloji Dergisi, vol. 38, 2018Google Scholar, https://doi.org/10.26650/SJ.2018.38.2.0026, [last accessed 10 July 2020], p. 284.

11 Brazinsky, Winning the Third World, pp. 178–80.

12 Friedman, J., Shadow Cold War: The Sino-Soviet Competition for the Third World (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), pp. 1–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Brazinsky, Winning the Third World, pp. 1–4.

14 Westad, O. A., The Cold War: A Global History (London: Penguin, 2018), p. 184Google Scholar.

15 Haslam, J., Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall (London: Yale University Press, 2011), p. 151Google Scholar.

16 Westad, The Cold War, p. 196.

17 Connelly, M., A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria's Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post-Cold War Era (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002)Google Scholar; Byrne, J., Mecca of Revolution: Algeria, Decolonisation, and the Third World Order (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 Byrne, Mecca of Revolution, pp. 51–58, 61–63. Narrower studies include Haddad-Fonda, K., ‘An Illusory Alliance: Revolutionary Legitimacy and Sino-Algerian Relations, 1958–1962’, Journal of North African Studies, vol. 19, no. 3, 2014, pp. 338–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Xiaohong, Liu, Chinese Ambassadors: The Rise of Diplomatic Professionalism since 1949 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2001), pp. 76–90Google Scholar.

19 ‘Oppose Racial Discrimination by US Imperialism’, 8 August 1963, Peking Review, 33, cited in Johnson, Matthew, ‘From Peace to the Panthers: PRC Engagement with African-American Transnational Networks, 1949–1979’, Past and Present, vol. 218, Supplement 8, 2013, p. 243CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Johnson, ‘From Peace to the Panthers’, p. 257.

21 Hongshan, Li, ‘Building a Black Bridge: China's Interaction with African-American Activists during the Cold War’, Journal of Cold War Studies, vol. 20, no. 3, Summer 2018, pp. 114–52Google Scholar.

22 Duan, R. D., ‘Solidarity in Three Acts: Narrating US Black Freedom Movements in China, 1961–66’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 53, no. 5, 2019, pp. 1351–80CrossRefGoogle Scholar, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0026749X1700052X, [last accessed 10 July 2020].

23 Johnson, ‘From Peace to the Panthers’, p. 243.

24 Kuisong, Yang, ‘The Theory and Implementation of the People's Republic of China's Revolutionary Diplomacy’, Journal of Modern Chinese History, vol. 3, no. 2, 2009, p. 135CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25 Nkrumah, K., Neo-Colonialism, The Last Stage of Imperialism (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1965)Google Scholar.

26 The New Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), s.v. ‘comprador’.

27 Coble, P. M. Jr., The Shanghai Capitalists and the Nationalist Government, 1927–1937 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986), p. 15Google Scholar.

28 Ibid., pp. 44–46, 62.

29 For an introduction to this debate, see Gordon, A., ‘The Theory of the “Progressive” National Bourgeoisie’, Journal of Contemporary Asia, vol. 10, 1973, pp. 192–203CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Vitalis, Robert, ‘On the Theory and Practice of Compradors: The Role of Cabbud Pasha in the Egyptian Political Economy’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 22, no. 3, 1990, pp. 291–315CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30 Mao Zedong, ‘Analysis of the classes in Chinese society’, March 1926, https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-1/mswv1_1.htm, [last accessed 15 June 2020].

31 Cochran, S., ‘Capitalists Choosing Communist China: The Liu Family of Shanghai, 1948–56’, in Dilemmas of Victory: The Early Years of the People's Republic of China, (eds) Brown, J. and Pickowicz, P. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), pp. 359–60, 370Google Scholar.

32 Fanon, F., The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove Press, 1963), p. 153Google Scholar.

33 Chen Jian has demonstrated how Mao used international crises for domestic mobilization. See Jian, Chen, Mao's China and the Cold War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), p. 169Google Scholar; Yin, ‘“People are God”’, pp. 286–87; and Yin Zhiguang, ‘Guojizhuyi shike: zhongguo geming shiyexia de a'labo minzu duli yu disan shijie zhixuguan de xingcheng [The Internationalist Moment: The Chinese Perspective on the National Independence Movements in the Arab World and the Making of the Chinese Third-World Internationalism]’, Kaifang shidai, vol. 4, 2017, p. 14; Haddad-Fonda, ‘An Illusory Alliance’, pp. 344–345; and Brazinsky, Winning the Third World, p. 167.

34 Dandan, Zhu, ‘The Hungarian Revolution and the Origins of China's Great Leap Policies, 1956–57’, Cold War History, vol. 12, no. 3, 2012, p. 464Google Scholar. Andrew Walder discusses the centrality of class to the Anti-Rightist Campaign and the Great Leap Forward in Walder, A., China under Mao: A Revolution Derailed (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017), pp. 164–67Google Scholar.

35 Smith, A., Thought Reform and China's Dangerous Classes: Reeducation, Resistance, and the People (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 2012), pp. 13–14Google Scholar.

36 Jian, Chen, ‘China and the Bandung Conference’, in Bandung Revisited: The Legacy of the 1955 Asian-African Conference for International Order, (eds) Tan, See Seng and Acharya, Amitav (Singapore: NUS Press, 2008), p. 133Google Scholar.

37 Niu Jun, ‘Chongjian “zhongjian didai”: Zhongguo yazhou zhengce de qiyuan, 1949–1955 [Rebuilding the “intermediate zone”: the origins of China's Asia policy, 1949–1955]’, in Lengzhan yu zhongguo waijiao zhengce [The Cold War and China's Foreign Policy], (ed.) Niu Jun (Beijing: Jiuzhou Publishing, 2012), pp. 238–55.

38 Zhihua, Shen and Yafeng, Xia, ‘Leadership Transfer in the Asian Revolution: Mao Zedong and the Asian Cominform’, Cold War History, vol. 14, no. 2, 2014, pp. 195–213Google Scholar.

39 Niu, ‘Chongjian “zhongjian didai”’, p. 249.

40 Ibid., p. 254.

41 ‘Cable to V. K. Krishna Menon’, 13 April 1953, Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru, Second Series (SWJN-SS), Vol. 22, 1 April 1953–30 June 1953, (eds) R. Kumar and H. Y. Sharada Prasad (New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund, 1998), pp. 424–26; ‘15 May 1953’, ZELNP. For an earlier Chinese attack on India, see ‘Note 20’, 22 December 1952, Jawaharlal Nehru: Letters to Chief Ministers, Vol. 3, 1952–1954, (ed.) G. Parthasarathy (New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund, 1987), p. 208, fn.; and ‘Diren de shibai yu women de shengli [The Enemy's Defeat and Our Victory]’, 11 December 1952, Zhou Enlai Junshi Wenxuan [Selected Military Documents of Zhou Enlai] (Beijing: People's Publishing House, 1997), Vol. 4, p. 292.

42 ‘5 June 1953’, ZELNP.

43 ‘25 August 1953’, ZELNP.

44 Gongsu, Yang, Cangsang jiushinian: yige waijiao teshi de huiyi [Vicissitudes over Ninety Years: The Memoirs of a Special Diplomatic Envoy] (Hainan: Hainan Publishing House, 1999), pp. 215–16; and ‘31Google Scholar December 1953’, ZELNP.

45 ‘Agreement between the Republic of India and the People's Republic of China on Trade and Intercourse between Tibet region of China and India. Signed at Peking, 29 April, 1954’, United Nations Treaty Series, vol. 299, issue 6, no. 4307.

46 Yang, Cangsang jiushinian, p. 220.

47 ‘Panchsheel—A Model Code for Bilateral Relations’, 28 June 1954, SWJN-SS, Vol. 26, 1 June 1954–30 September 1954, p. 410.

48 ‘28 June 1954’, ZELNP.

49 Niu, ‘Chongjian “zhongjian didai”’, p. 251.

50 Shuguang, Zhang, ‘Constructing “Peaceful Coexistence”: China's Diplomacy toward the Geneva and Bandung Conferences, 1954–55’, Cold War History, vol. 7, no. 4, 2007, p. 518Google Scholar.

51 ‘8 October 1954’, ZELNP.

52 ‘4–5 April 1955’, ZELNP.

53 ‘28 April 1955’, ZELNP.

54 ‘Ji Pengfei fubuzhang yu yindu zhuhua dashi laijiawen de tanhua jilu [Record of conversation between Deputy Minister Ji Pengfei and Indian Ambassador to China Raghavan]’, 12 April 1955, CMFA, 207-00009-01; ‘Ji Pengfei fubuzhang yu yindu zhuhua dashi laijiawen de tanhua jilu [Record of conversation between Deputy Minister Ji Pengfei and Indian Ambassador to China Raghavan]’, 13 April 1955, CMFA, 207-00009-02.

55 ‘20 April 1955’, ZELNP.

56 Zhang, ‘Constructing “Peaceful Coexistence”’, p. 524; Niu, ‘Chongjian “zhongjian didai”’, p. 254.

57 I. Abraham, ‘Bandung and State Formation in Post Colonial Asia’, in Bandung Revisited, (eds) Tan and Acharya, pp. 48–67.

58 Haddad-Fonda, Kyle, ‘The Domestic Significance of China's Policy toward Egypt, 1955–57’, The Chinese Historical Review, vol. 21, issue 1, 2014, pp. 45–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

59 Brazinsky, Winning the Third World, p. 102.

60 ‘Dui “1956–1967 quanguo nongye fazhan gangyao (cao'an)” gao de xiugai he gei Zhou enlai de xin [Revisions to the draft outline document of the national agricultural development plan for 1956–1967 and letter to Zhou Enlai]’, 26 January 1956, Jianguo yilai Mao Zedong de wengao [Collected Documents of Mao Zedong since the Founding of the PRC] (JGYLMZDWG), 8 volumes (Beijing: Central Party Documents, Digital Edition), Vol. 6, p. 1; ‘Shehui zhuyi geming de mudi shi jiefang shengchanli [The goal of socialism is to liberate production)’, People's Daily, 26 January 1956, JGYLMZDWG, Vol. 6, p. 22.

61 Zhihua, Shen, Chuzai shizi lukou de xuanze: 1956–1957 nian de zhongguo [At the Crossroads: China in 1956–57] (Guangdong: People's Publishing, 2013), pp. 3–4Google Scholar.

62 Ibid., pp. 277–88. Chen Jian also confirms the radicalizing impact that events in Hungary had on Mao: see Chen, Mao's China, Chapter 6; Zhu, ‘The Hungarian Revolution’, pp. 451–72.

63 ‘Zai tingqu ganzi, liangshan liangge zizhizhou gaige he pingluan wenti huibaoshi de tanhua [Discussion when listening to the report on reforms and pacification in the two autonomous prefectures of Ganzi and Liangshan]’, 22 July 1956, Mao Zedong Xizang gongzuo wenxuan [Selected Tibet Work Documents of Mao Zedong] (MZDXZGZWX) (Beijing: Central Party Documents, 2008), pp. 148–51.

64 ‘Zhongyang fu Lasa dengdi keneng fasheng baoluan shi de zhishi [The centre replies to Lhasa and other places on the possibility of turmoil occurring]’, 16 December 1956, Pingxi Xizang panluan [Pacifying the Tibet Rebellion] (PXXZPL), CCP Tibet Party History Information Series (N.p.: Tibet People's Publishing House, 1995), p. 62; ‘6 January 1957’, ZELNP.

65 Shen, Chuzai shizi lukou de xuanze, pp. 1–9.

66 Zhu, ‘The Hungarian Revolution’, p. 464.

67 ‘Yindu jingji muqian fasheng yanzhong kunnan de yuanyin he yindu zhengfu de duice [The causes of the serious difficulties currently of the Indian economy and the Indian Government's counter-measures]’, CCP Central Investigation Department, 25 July 1957, CMFA, 105-00835-01.

68 ‘Muqian yindu guonei zhengzhi douzheng de xinghshi jiqi yingxiang [The situation and impact of India's current domestic political struggle]’, CCP Central Investigation Department, 26 April 1958, CMFA, 105-00891-10.

69 ‘Yinmei guanxi fazhan jinkuang [Recent situation in the development of Indian-US relations]’, 19 May 1958, Intelligence Section of the Headquarters of the General Staff, Yindu meiguo guanxi [India-US Relations], 31 March–14 November 1958, CMFA, 105-00892-02, pp. 7–15.

70 ‘Yindu lujun canmouzhang dimaiya shangjiang fangmei qingkuang xubao [Further report on the Indian Chief of the Army General Staff, General Thimayya's visit to the US]’, 14 November 1958, CMFA, 105-00892-02, p. 19.

71 ‘Yindu guodadang neibu maodun he douzheng [Indian National Congress Party's internal contradictions and struggles]’, 5 November 1958–19 January 1959, CMFA, 105-00891-07.

72 ‘Cong nihelu muqian de kumen kan yindu zhengju [Observing India's political situation from Nehru's current difficulties]’, CCP Central Investigation Department, 9 December 1958, CMFA, 105-00891-09.

73 Shen, Chuzai shizi lukou de xuanze, pp. 291–94.

74 ‘Zhanzheng yu heping ji huxiang paichi you huxiang lianjie [War and peace are both mutually exclusive and also mutually related]’, 27 January 1957, Jianguo yilai Mao zedong junshi wengao [The Collected Military Documents of Mao Zedong since the Founding of the PRC] (JGYLMZDJSWG) (Beijing: Central Party Documents, 2010), Vol. 2, p. 338.

75 ‘Liangci shibai shi women xuehuile dazhang [Two defeats made us learn how to fight]’, 1 February 1959, JGYLMZDJSWG, Vol. 3, p. 5.

76 Chau, D., ‘The French-Algeria War, 1954–1964: Communist China's Support for Algerian Independence’, in Military Advising and Assistance: From Mercenaries to Privatisation, 1815–2007, (ed.) Stoker, D. (New York: Routledge, 2008), pp. 111–15Google Scholar.

77 Ibid., p. 115.

78 Byrne, Mecca of Revolution, p. 49.

79 Chau, ‘The French-Algeria War’, p. 115.

80 Ibid., p. 113.

81 Byrne, Mecca of Revolution, pp. 69–71.

82 Haddad-Fonda, ‘An Illusory Alliance’, p. 341.

83 Eisenman, J., ‘Comrades-in-Arms: The Chinese Communist Party's Relations with African Political Organisations in the Mao Era, 1949–76’, Cold War History, vol. 18, no. 4, 2018, pp. 433–34Google Scholar.

84 Brazinsky, Winning the Third World, pp. 178–80.

85 Yin, ‘“People are God”’, p. 284.

86 Byrne, Mecca of Revolution, pp. 51, 57, 69–71.

87 ‘A'erjiliya lishi zhengfu daibiaotuan fanghua jiedai jianbao [Summary report of the visit to China of the delegation of the Algerian Provisional Government]’, 5 December 1958, CMFA, 107-00165-02.

88 ‘Peng Dehuai yuanshuai huijian A'erjiliya junshi daibiaotuan de tanhua jilu [Record of talks between Marshal Peng Dehuai and the Algerian military delegation]’, 6 April 1959, CMFA, 107-00191-03.

89 ‘Zhou Enlai zongli huijian A'erjiliya junshi daibiaotuan tanhua jilu [Record of talks at Premier Zhou Enlai's meeting with the Algerian military delegation]’, 5 May 1959, CMFA, 107-00191-06.

90 Walder, China under Mao, pp. 164–69.

91 ‘Yindu dida zichan jieji de zhuanhua [The transformation of India's big capitalists]’, 27 November 1959, CMFA, 105-00998-06.

92 Niu Jun, ‘1962: The Eve of the Left Turn in China's Foreign Policy’, Cold War International History Project Working Paper 48, Woodrow Wilson Center, October 2005, p. 8; see also Eisenman, ‘Comrades-in-Arms’, p. 434.

93 CMFA, 105-00998-06.

94 Kuisong, Yang, Zhongjian didai de geming: guoji da beijing xia kan zhonggong chenggong zhi dao [Revolution in the Intermediate Zone: The Victory of the Chinese Communist Party in its International Context] (Taiyuan: Shanxi People's Publishing, 2010), p. 526Google Scholar.

95 Yang, ‘Revolutionary Diplomacy’, p. 139.

96 Jian, Chen, ‘The Tibetan Rebellion of 1959 and China's Changing Relations with India and the Soviet Union’, Journal of Cold War Studies, vol. 8, no. 3, 2006, pp. 72–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

97 ‘Zong houqinbu zhengwei Li Juikui tong A'erjiliya junshi daibiaotuan tanhua jiyao [Summary of talks between General Logistics Department's Political Commissar Li Jukui and the Algerian Military Delegation]’, 3 April 1959, CMFA, 107-00191-02.

98 ‘Zhou Enlai zongli huijian A'erjiliya fuzongli Beilekasaimu huitan jilu [Record of talks between Premier Zhou and Algeria's Deputy Premier Belkacem]’, 14 May 1960, CMFA, 107-00120-05.

99 Ibid.

100 ‘Mao Zedong zhuxi jiejian A'erjiliya fu zongli Beilekasaimu tanhua jilu [Record of talks at Chairman Mao's reception of Algerian Deputy Premier Belkacem]’, 17 May 1960, CMFA, 107-00120-01.

101 ‘Chen Yi fuzongli tong A'erjiliya fuzongli Beilekasaimu huitan jilu [Record of talks between Vice Premier Chen Yi and Algeria's Deputy President Belkacem]’, 18 May 1960, CMFA, 107-00120-06; see also CMFA, 107-00120-05.

102 ‘A gan fa tanpan shi [Algeria pushes France over negotiations]', Embassy in Morocco, 19 June 1960, A’erjiliya yu faguo tanpan ji wo duici tanpan de taidu [Negotiations between Algeria and France and our attitude to these talks], 19–24 June 1960, CMFA, 107-00225-01.

103 ‘A'basi zuowan fayan gao a renminshu [Abbas speech yesterday announcing his letter to the Algerian people]’, Embassy in Morocco, 21 June 1960, CMFA, 107-00225-01.

104 ‘Beilekasaimu jian chen dashi tan neirong [Content of talks when Belkacem met Ambassador Chen]', Embassy in United Arab Republic, 27 June 1960, A'erjiliya fuzongli beilekasaimu gao wo pai Feiluji wei zhuhua daibiao deng youguan qingkuang [Situation relating to Algeria’s Deputy President Belkacem announcing that he will send Feiluji as a representative stationed in China and other matters], 27 June 1960, CMFA, 107-00225-03.

105 ‘Guobin jiedai qingkuang (A'erjiliya daibiaotuan tong wo huitan qingkuang) [Circumstances surrounding state visitors (Talks with Algeria delegation)]’, 5 October 1960, CMFA, 204-00119-12.

106 ‘Zeng Yongquan fubuzhang yu A'erjiliya zhuhua waijiaoshituan tuanzhang de tanhua jilu [Record of talks between Deputy Minister Zeng Yongquan and Algeria's head of delegation in China]’, 17 May 1961, CMFA, 107-00970-01.

107 Byrne, Mecca of Revolution, pp. 79–83.

108 For example, see fn. 1 and also CMFA, 107-00120-02.

109 Harder, Anton, ‘Promoting Development without Struggle: Sino-Indian Relations in the 1950s’, in India and the Cold War, (ed.) Bhagavan, Manu (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2019), p. 160Google Scholar.

110 See Brazinsky, ‘Showcasing the Chinese Version of Moderni-tea in Africa’.

111 For example, see CMFA, 107-00120-05.

112 ‘Zhou Enlai zongli tong A'erjiliya fuzongli Beilekasaimu huitan jilu [Record of talks between Premier Zhou and Algerian Deputy President Beilekasaimu]’, 19 May 1960, CMFA, 107-00120-07.

113 CMFA, 107-00191-02.

114 G. Deshingkar, ‘Science and Technology in China—A Preliminary Enquiry’, China Report, vol. 10, no. 5–6, Sep.–Dec. 1974, p. 277.

115 Two examples are Lijing, Jiang, ‘Global Epidemiology, Local Message: Sino-American Collaboration on Cancer Research, 1969–1990’, in Global Transformations in the Life Sciences, 1945–1980, (eds) Manning, Patrick and Savelli, Mat (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2018)Google Scholar; and Lijing, Jiang, ‘Crafting Socialist Embryology: Dialectics, Aquaculture, and the Diverging Discipline in Maoist China, 1950–1965’, History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, vol. 40, no. 3, 2018Google Scholar. For a more concise overview of recent literature on science in Mao's China, see Jia-chen, Fu, ‘Practice and the History of Science in the PRC: A Historiographic Reflection’, East Asian Science, Technology and Society: An International Journal, vol. 13, no. 3, 2019, pp. 449–63Google Scholar.

116 ‘A'basi zuowan fayan gao a renminshu [Abbas speech yesterday announcing his letter to the Algerian people]’, Embassy in Morocco, 21 June 1960, CMFA, 107-00225-01.

117 CMFA, 107-00970-03.

118 ‘Chen Yi fuzongli jiejian A'erjiliya zhuhua waijiaoshituan tuanzhang Abudule Lakeman Jiwan de tanhua jilu [Record of talks between Vice Premier Chen Yi and the head of Algeria's permanent delegation to China Abderrahmane Kiouane]’, 25 July 1961, CMFA, 107-00970-04.

119 ‘Guobin jiedai qingkuang (A'basi zongli canguanzhong de fanying) [Circumstances on state visitors (President Abbas's reactions during visit)]’, 2 October 1960, CMFA, 204-00119-25.

120 ‘A'erjiliya gongheguo linshi zhengfu zongli ben yousufu ben keda zhi zhou enlai zongli de xin [Letter from Benyoucef Benkhedda, President of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Algeria to Premier Zhou Enlai]', 9 February 1962, Zhou zongli huijian a’erjiliya waijiao shituan tuanzhang jiwan tanhua jilu [Record of talks between Premier Zhou Enlai and Kiouane, Head of the Algerian diplomatic mission], 20 February 1962, CMFA, 107-00991-01.

121 Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution, pp. 364–65.

122 Byrne, Mecca of Revolution, pp. 126–29.

123 Niu, ‘1962’, pp. 30–36.

124 ‘Waijiaobu shoudian, alian tailai [Embassy in United Arab Republic to Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs]', 2 July 1962, Dui a'erjiliya neibu fenqi de kanfa he jianyi, zhongguo zhengfu lingdaoren jiejian a zhuhua shituanzhang de qingshi ji zhongyang pishi [Opinions and suggestions regarding Algeria's internal differences, Chinese Government leaders' instructions to receive Algeria's representative in China and the centre’s annotations], 2–16 July 1962, CMFA, 107-00994-01.

125 ‘Dui a'erjiliya neibu fenqi de kanfa he jianyi wo zhengfu lingdaoren yuejian a zhuhua shituanzhang deng wenti de qingshi [Instructions on opinions and suggestions related to internal differences in Algeria and the Government's leaders meeting with the head of the Algerian delegation and other issues]’, Foreign Ministry, 5 July 1962, CMFA, 107-00994-01.

126 Zhongguo paizhu a'erjiliya dashiguan linshi daiban de qingshi ji youguan dianbao [China's request to send an interim chargé d'affaires to the embassy in Algeria and related telegrams], 19 July–11 August 1962, CMFA, 107-00995-02.

127 Byrne, Mecca of Revolution, pp. 126–29.

128 Niu, ‘1962’, p. 33; and Chen, Mao's China, p. 210.

129 ‘Dui a minzu jiefang chenxian neibu douzheng de kanfa [Opinion on Algerian FLN internal struggle]', Embassy in Switzerland, 2 August 1962, Zhongguo zhuwaishi dui a'erjiliya xingshi de kanfa [China's overseas diplomats’ views on the situation in Algeria], 5 August–8 September 1962, CMFA, 107-00997-01.

130 ‘A'erjiliya qingkuang he shiguan kanfa [Algerian situation and embassy's view]’, Embassy in Morocco, 5 August 1962, CMFA, 107-00997-01. Connelly describes the OAS as a ‘terrorist militia made up of the most diehard settlers’: see Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution, p. 22.

131 ‘Du'er tong ke dashi tanhua neirong [Talks between Touré and Ambassador Ke]', Embassy in Guinea, 8 August 1962, CMFA, 107-00997-01.

132 ‘A'erjiliya xingshi ji jidian jianyi [Situation in Algeria and a few suggestions]’, Embassy in Morocco, 9 August 1962, CMFA, 107-00997-01.

133 ‘Yafeisi he gongkai fusizhang huijian a'erjiliya zhu zhongguo shituan tuanzhang Jiwan tanhua jilu [Record of talks between Asian African Bureau Deputy Director He Gongkai and head of Algeria's delegation to China Abderrahmane Kiouane]’, 10 August 1962, CMFA, 107-00996-05.

134 On effects of the famine, see Walder, China under Mao, pp. 180–88; Manning, K. Ens and Wemheuer, F. (eds), Eating Bitterness: New Perspectives on China's Great Leap Forward and the Famine (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2011)Google Scholar; Jisheng, Yang, Mubei—Zhongguo liushi niandai de jihuang jishi, 2 vols, (Hong Kong: Tiandi Tushu, 2008)Google Scholar or the shorter English edition: Jisheng, Yang, Tombstone: The Great Chinese Famine 1958–1962 (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 2012)Google Scholar; and Dikotter, F., Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe (London: Bloomsbury, 2011)Google Scholar.

135 Chen yi fuzongli huijian a'erjiliya zhuhua zhongguo dashituan tuanzhang jiwan tanhua yaodian [Summary points of discussion at Vice Premier Chen Yi's meeting with head of Algeria's delegation to China Abderrahmane Kiouane], 21–27 August 1962, CMFA, 107-00996-02; see CMFA, 107-00996-01 for verbatim record.

136 ‘A'erjiliya qingkuang [Algeria situation]', Embassy in Algeria, 15 September 1962, CMFA, 107-00997-01.

137 ‘A xin zhengfu zucheng qingkuang jiqi neiwai zhengce [Composition of Algeria’s new government and its internal and external policies]’, Embassy in Algeria, 9 October 1962, CMFA, 107-00997-01.

138 Brown, M., ‘Drawing Algeria into Europe: Shifting French Policy and the Treaty of Rome (1951–1964)’, Modern and Contemporary France, vol. 25, no. 2 (3 April 2017), pp. 199–200CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

139 ‘Bao a jizhe long fei tan de yixie qingkuang [Report on talk with Algerian journalist Khaled Safer]’, Embassy in Algeria, 24 October 1962, CMFA, 107-00997-01.

140 ‘Guanyu yuan a wenti [Regarding aid to Algeria]', Beijing to embassy in Algeria, 21 February 1963, Zhongguo dui A'erjiliya jingji yuanzhu de taidu [China’s attitude towards economic aid for Algeria], 20–26 February 1963, CMFA, 107-01016-02.

141 Liu, Chinese Ambassadors, p. 85.

142 ‘Zhongguo xiang A'erjiliya tigongguo dong yiwu, zhangpeng shi [China's provision to Algeria of winter clothing and tents]’, 6 November–1 December 1962, CMFA, 107-00996-03.

143 ‘Guanyu zhudong dui a'erjiliya jinxing yuanzhu he jinyibu kaizhan gongzuo de qingshi [Regarding instructions for actively increasing aid to Algeria and further expansion of work]’, Embassy in Algeria, 20 February 1963, CMFA, 107-01016-02.

144 Brazinsky, ‘Showcasing the Chinese Version of Moderni-tea in Africa’.

145 Sun, ‘“Now the Cry was Communism”’, pp. 5–10.

146 Chen, Mao's China, pp. 210–11.

147 Brazinsky, Winning the Third World, pp. 260–64; Eisenman, ‘Comrades-in-Arms’, p. 437.

148 ‘Chen Yi fuzongli huijian A'erjiliya zhu zhongguo shituan tuanzhang Jiwan tanhua jilu [Record of talks between Vice Premier Chen Yi and Head of Algeria's delegation in China Abderrahmane Kiouane]’, 21 August 1962, CMFA, 107-00996-01.

149 Byrne, Mecca of Revolution, pp. 113–15.

150 Liu, Chinese Ambassadors, pp. 76–90.

151 Li, ‘Building a Black Bridge’, pp. 141–43.

152 Yang, Zhongjian didai de geming, p. 527.

153 Valdez, J., Internationalism and the Ideology of Soviet Influence in Eastern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 47Google Scholar.

154 ‘Peaceful Coexistence and Revolution: A Kommunist Article by G. Starushenko’, New Age, 8 April 1962, pp. 6–7.

155 The Editorial Department of Renmin Ribao [People's Daily], ‘More on Nehru's Philosophy in the Light of the Sino-Indian Boundary Question’, 27 October 1962, Wilson Center Digital Archive, http://digitalarchive.wilsoncenter.org/document/175947, [last accessed 18 June 2020].

156 Zial-Haq, ‘Glimpses into the Chinese Mind: Perverse Understanding of Indian Situation’, New Age, 11 November 1962, p. 5; and ‘Workers, Employers, Government: Jointly Meet to Help Defence’, New Age, 11 November 1962, p. 6.

157 Lifeng, Li, ‘Rural Mobilization in the Chinese Communist Revolution: From the Anti-Japanese War to the Chinese Civil War’, Journal of Modern Chinese History, vol. 9, no. 1, 2015, pp. 95–116Google Scholar.

158 ‘Mao Zedong zhuxi jiejian A'erjiliya fuzongli Beilekamu tanhua jilu [Record of talks at Chairman Mao's reception of Algerian Deputy Premier Belkacem]’, 17 May 1960, CMFA, 107-00120-01.

159 Li, ‘Building a Black Bridge’, p. 137.