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Ethics and Internationalism in Japanese Education, 1933–45

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 March 2018

JESSAMYN R. ABEL
JESSAMYN R. ABEL*
Affiliation:
Department of Asian Studies, Pennsylvania State University, United States of America Email: jua14@psu.edu
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Abstract

After their government's 1933 withdrawal from the League of Nations, Japanese internationalists searched for new ways to engage with the world or struggled to accommodate their advocacy of international cooperation to the realities of the wartime empire. The idea of international morality was central to this effort. Ethics textbooks, which presented ideals of international behaviour, provide a particular view of this intellectual and policy endeavour of the 1930s and early 1940s, showing how the concept of morality became a means to reconcile internationalism with imperialism and war. Echoing many of the ideas current in both public discussion and behind-closed-doors decision-making on foreign policy at the time, textbook authors and other educators contributed to a broader redefinition of internationalism that enabled it to persist through a period of imperialism and war.

Type
Research Article
Information
Modern Asian Studies , Volume 52 , Issue 2 , March 2018 , pp. 532 - 575
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

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References

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41 Gotō, Kokusaishugi no keifu. On the goals of the conference and focus of Ōshima's writings, see pp. v–x.

42 These pressures came from all directions: civilian and military government bureaucracies, politicians in the Diet, and even the force of public opinion. See Lincicome, M., Imperial Subjects as Global Citizens: Nationalism, Internationalism, and Education in Japan, Lexington Books, Lanham, MD, 2009, pp. 101–2Google Scholar; Abel, International Minimum, pp. 34–53; Yoshiaki, Yoshimi, Grassroots Fascism: The War Experience of the Japanese People, trans. Mark, E., Columbia University Press, New York, 2015, pp. 96–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

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47 Peter Cave has shown the impact on content of textbook approval and adoption processes in contemporary Japan. Cave, P., ‘Japanese colonialism and the Asia-Pacific War in Japan's history textbooks: changing representations and their causes’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 47, no. 2, 2013, pp. 542–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

48 For examples of popular media messages resembling those found in textbooks, see Hikomatsu, Kamikawa, ‘Renmei dattai ato no kokusai jōsei’, Chūō kōron, vol. 48, no. 9, September 1933, pp. 343–51Google Scholar; ‘Renmei dattai to shin gaikō seisaku’, Asahi Shinbun, 25 February 1933, p. 3; Hiroto, Saigusa, ‘Tōa kyōdōtai no ronri’, Chūō kōron, vol. 54, no. 1, January 1939, pp. 114–23Google Scholar; and Bukichi, Yamada, ‘Kokusai Renmei dattai ato no Nihon’, Nihon oyobi Nihonjin, vol. 268, 1 March 1933, pp. 9–14Google Scholar. For a study of such messages, see Abel, International Minimum, pp. 25–53, 81–139, 175–217.

49 Kaigo Tokiomi, Nihon kyōkasho taikei, pp. 638–43; Tomitarō, Karasawa, ‘Kyōkasho no rekishi’, Shisō, vol. 378, December 1955, pp. 60–9Google Scholar; H. J. Wray, ‘Changes and continuity in Japanese images of the Kokutai and attitudes and roles toward the outside world: a content analysis of Japanese textbooks, 1903–1945’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Hawaii, 1971.

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53 Nasu Keiko studies the worldview promoted, for example, in wartime middle-school history textbooks in her article ‘Senjika Monbushō hensan chūtō rekishi kyōkasho ni okeru “Ajiya” ninshiki’, Nihon shokuminchi kenkyū, vol. 19, 2007, pp. 17–33. See also Caiger, J., ‘The aims and content of school courses in Japanese history, 1872–1945’, in Japan's Modern Century: A Special Issue of Monumenta Nipponica Prepared in Celebration of the Centennial of the Meiji Restoration, Skrzypczak, E. (ed.), Sophia University, Tokyo, 1968, pp. 51–81Google Scholar. For a broader analysis of the principles promoted in wartime elementary ethics textbooks, see Tatsuhiko, Tomita, ‘Jinjō shōgakkō shūshin kyōkasho no bunseki’, Gakujutsu kenkyū (Kyōiku shinrigaku hen), vol. 48, February 2000, pp. 1–15Google Scholar. On Confucian rhetoric in wartime Japanese ethics textbooks, see Yamashita, S. H., ‘Confucianism and the Japanese state, 1904–1945’, in Confucian Traditions in East Asian Modernity: Moral Education and Economic Culture in Japan and the Four Mini-Dragons, Wei-ming, Tu (ed.), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1996, pp. 132–54.Google Scholar

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63 Monbushō, Jinjō (1922), reprinted in Kaigo, Nihon kyōkasho taikei, p. 194; and Monbushō, Jinjō (1939), reprinted in Kaigo, Nihon kyōkasho taikei, p. 345.

64 For example, Ōse, Chūgaku shin shūshin, p. 94; Konishi, Kaitei Shōwa chūgaku shūshin sho, pp. 112–13; Yuhara, Shinsei chūgaku shūshin kyōhon, pp. 111–14.

65 King Hall, R., Shūshin: The Ethics of a Defeated Nation, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1949, pp. 100–2Google Scholar, notes 17, 19.

66 On the Boshin Rescript, see, for example, Gluck, C., Japan's Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1985, pp. 91–2Google Scholar.

67 Quoted in full under the title ‘Imperial Rescript’ in The Japan Christian Year-Book, 1909, http://www.archive.org/stream/thejapanchristia07unknuoft/thejapanchristia07unknuoft_djvu.txt, [accessed 7 February 2018].

68 Yuhara, Shinsei chūgaku shūshin kyōhon, p. 115. Other textbooks that discuss the Boshin Rescript in similar ways include, for example, Konishi, Kaitei Shōwa chūgaku shūshin sho, p. 113; and Monbushō, Jinjō shōgaku shūshin sho (1939), reprinted in Kaigo, Nihon kyōkasho taikei, p. 345.

69 Monbushō, Jinjō (1939), reprinted in Kaigo, Nihon kyōkasho taikei, p. 345; Monbushō, Jinjō shōgaku shūshin sho (1922), reprinted in Kaigo, Nihon kyōkasho taikei, p. 195.

70 Wray, ‘Changes and continuity’, p. 254.

71 Konishi served as a school inspector early in his career, then became head professor of pedagogy at Kyoto Imperial University. He was named university president in March 1933, but this ethics scholar was himself embroiled in an ethical crisis three months later, resigning over the Takigawa Incident, in which the university's submission to government pressure to fire a professor suspected of communist activities prompted the Law Faculty to resign en masse.

72 Konishi, Kaitei Shōwa chūgaku shūshin sho, pp. 111–12.

73 The lone exception was the 1943 sixth-grade textbook, which focused on contemporary international cooperation without providing historical background.

74 Monbushō, Jinjō (1939), reprinted in Kaigo, Nihon kyōkasho taikei, p. 346; Hall, Shūshin, p. 101, note 19.

75 Monbushō, Shihan shūshin sho, vol. 2, Kyōgaku Tosho, Tokyo, 1939, pp. 102–3.

76 Even after Japan's formal withdrawal from the League, the government continued cooperation with activities and auxiliary organs that were deemed ‘non-political’, especially the areas of intellectual cooperation, the welfare of women and children, opium traffic, and public health. See Abel, International Minimum, pp. 37–40.

77 Ōse Jintarō, Chūgaku shin shūshin, 1927, 3rd edn, vol. 3, Tokyo Kaiseikan, Tokyo, 1936, pp. 97–9.

78 Monbushō, Jinjō (1939), reprinted in Kaigo, Nihon kyōkasho taikei, p. 345; ibid., p. 95; Monbushō, Shihan, p. 102.

79 Monbushō, Jinjō (1939), reprinted in Kaigo, Nihon kyōkasho taikei, p. 346; Yuhara, Shinsei chūgaku shūshin kyōhon, p. 80; Monbushō, Shihan, p. 102; and Ōse, Chūgaku shin shūshin, p. 96. Also see Konishi, Kaitei Shōwa chūgaku shūshin sho, p. 115.

80 Ōse, Chūgaku shin shūshin, pp. 94–9.

81 Quotation is from ‘The Imperial Rescript on Education’, p. 140.

82 Konishi, Kaitei Shōwa chūgaku shūshin sho, p. 113.

83 Yuhara, Shinsei chūgaku shūshin kyōhon, pp. 82–7, 113–15.

84 Ibid., pp. 110–11.

85 Monbushō Kyōgakukyoku, Shinmin no michi, p. 16, translation modified from ‘The way of subjects’, p. 413.

86 Ibid., p. 415.

87 Monbushō, Shihan, p. 100.

88 Monbushō, Shotōka shūshin (1943), reprinted in Kaigo, Nihon kyōkasho taikei, p. 492.

89 On the promotion of such a role for Japan through middle-school history textbooks, see Nasu, ‘Senjika Monbushō hensan chūtō rekishi kyōkasho’.

90 Abel, International Minimum, pp. 194–217.

91 Duara, ‘Imperialism of “free nations”’, pp. 211–13.

92 Akira Iriye shows that this was a general trend among the great powers, including Japan, in the 1930s, in Iriye, A., Cultural Internationalism and World Order, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1997, pp. 91–130.Google Scholar

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95 Ōse, Chūgaku shin shūshin, p. 100.

96 Collins, S., The 1940 Tokyo Games: The Missing Olympics: Japan, the Asian Olympics and the Olympic Movement, Routledge, New York, 2007, pp. 38–40; and Abel, International Minimum, pp. 108–39Google Scholar.

97 Ōse, Chūgaku shin shūshin, p. 103.

98 For example, see contributions by Ashida Hitoshi and Narusawa Reisen in ‘Dai jūni kai Orimupikku Tokyo kaisai ni kan suru kansō oyobi kakuhōmen e no kibō to chūmon’, Kaizō, vol. 18, no. 9, 1936, pp. 296–7.

99 Hideichi, Sasaki, Shin Nihon chūgaku shūshin sho, vol. 3, Meguro Shoten, Tokyo, 1938, p. 87.Google Scholar

100 For example, Kōtarō, Kishihara, ‘Nihon wa ikanaru baai ni mo Renmei o yūdatsu subeshi’, Nihon oyobi Nihonjin, vol. 268, 1 March 1933, p. 54Google Scholar; Iwane, Matsui, ‘Ajia Renmei ron’, Gaikō jihō, vol. 679, 15 March 1933, p. 12Google Scholar; Motosaburō, Takada, ‘Renmei dattai no igi’, Gaikō jihō, vol. 680, 1 April 1933, p. 342Google Scholar; Tadao, Yamakawa, ‘Renmei dattai no kahi: Aku made Renmei o shidō seyo’, Kaizō, vol. 3, March 1933, p. 74Google Scholar.

101 On the post-1933 resurgence of pan-Asianism, see Abel, International Minimum, pp. 44–53; Aydin, Politics of Anti-Westernism, pp. 166–74 ; and Hotta, Pan-Asianism, pp. 75–106.

102 Konishi, Kaitei Shōwa chūgaku shūshin sho, pp. 118–19.

103 Passin, Society and Education in Japan, p. 157.

104 Lincicome, ‘International education movement’, p. 356.

105 Gluck, Japan's Modern Myths, p. 154.

106 For example, Passin, Society and Education in Japan, p. 159.

107 Havens, T. R. H., Valley of Darkness: The Japanese People and World War Two, W.W. Norton, New York, 1978, pp. 138–42Google Scholar; Marshall, Learning to be Modern, p. 136.

108 Cave, P., ‘Story, song, and ceremony: shaping dispositions in Japanese elementary schools during Taisho and early Showa’, Japan Forum, vol. 28, no. 1, 2016, pp. 13, 23.Google Scholar

109 Murai Minoru traces a broader impact of education on Japanese worldviews over a longer term, investigating the effect of Meiji and Taishō education on the lives of contemporary Japanese, though he does not specifically address education on international relations. Murai Minoru, Kindai Nihon no kyōiku to seiji, Tōyōkan shuppansha, Tokyo, 2000.