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Resiliency or Resignation: Paul F. Lazarsfeld, Austro-Marxism, and the Psychology of Unemployment, 1919–1933

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 July 2019

Charles H. Clavey
Charles H. Clavey*
Affiliation:
Department of History, Harvard University
*
Corresponding author. E-mail: cclavey@fas.harvard.edu
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Abstract

The Unemployed of Marienthal (1933) has long been esteemed as a classic of twentieth-century social science; its portrait of the effects of joblessness on individual minds and social institutions has inspired generations of researchers. But this reception has largely overlooked the political origins and implications of the study. This essay resituates Marienthal in the context of its creation and dissemination: the distinctive Marxism of interwar Austria. Specifically, it demonstrates that Marienthal introduced social-psychological methods and findings into Marxist debates about the present state and future prospects of the working class. Led by Paul F. Lazarsfeld, the Marienthal researchers adopted the Austro-Marxist goal of creating a model proletariat through a program of “anticipatory socialism.” But by finding that unemployment confounded efforts to reform the working class, Marienthal undermined the very program it aimed to support. In fact, the essay shows, Marienthal authorized arguments that the unemployed were unreliable political actors—“declassed” workers as likely to become reactionaries as revolutionaries. The essay concludes by considering whether Marienthal embodied a distinctively Austro-Marxist “style” of thinking and research.

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Modern Intellectual History , Volume 18 , Issue 1 , March 2021 , pp. 146 - 170
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Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019

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Footnotes

For their comments and guidance on earlier drafts of this essay, I would like to thank Peter E. Gordon, Samuel Moyn, Elizabeth Lunbeck, Stuart Middleton, and the reviewers and editors of Modern Intellectual History.

References

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4 Ibid., 15.

5 Ibid., 16.

6 Ibid., 17.

7 As has recently been argued, this conception of a “locality” as simultaneously “a particular geographical area” and a “universal plane” was a characteristic of the social sciences of interwar Central Europe. See Lebow, Katherine, Mazurek, Małgorzata, and Wawrzyniak, Joanna, “Making Modern Social Science: The Global Imagination in East Central and Southeastern Europe after Versailles,” Contemporary European History 27/4 (2019), 137–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 138.

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16 On the Austro-Marxists’ theory of anticipatory socialism see Rabinbach, Crisis of Austrian Socialism, 24–31; Maderthaner, Wolfgang, “Austro-Marxism: Mass Culture and Anticipatory Socialism,” Austrian Studies 14 (2006), 21–36Google Scholar.

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32 Ibid., 109.

33 See e.g. Weiss, Hilde, “Die Enquête ouvrière von Karl Marx,” Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung 5 (1936), 76–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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39 Ibid., 423.

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42 Sieder, “Housing Policy,” 44.

43 Quoted in ibid.

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45 Beck, “Notes and Comments,” 423.

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47 Lazarsfeld, 1962 Oral History, 42, 183, 211; cf. Reminiscences of Paul Felix Lazarsfeld, 1975, interview by Ann K. Pasanella, Feb. 1975, 11, Columbia Center for Oral History, Columbia University.

48 Lazarsfeld, 1962 Oral History, 239.

49 Ibid., 239–40, 249.

50 Ibid., 53.

51 Lautman, Jacques and Lécuyer, Bernard-Pierre, “Interview with Marie Jahoda,” in Lautman and Lécuyer, eds., Paul Lazarsfeld (1901–1976): La sociologie de Vienne à New York (Paris, 1998), 135–40Google Scholar, at 136.

52 Lazarsfeld, 1962 Oral History, 185, 191–4, 210–11, 233–5.

53 Ibid., 199–200.

54 Ibid., 185.

55 Ibid., 211, 249.

56 Ibid., 219–21; cf. Lazarsfeld, Paul F., “An Episode in the History of Social Research: A Memoir,” in Fleming, Donald and Bailyn, Bernard, eds., The Intellectual Migration: Europe and America, 1930–1960 (Cambridge, 1969), 270–337Google Scholar, at 272–3.

57 Lazarsfeld, 1962 Oral History, 211–12, 242–3, esp. 243.

58 Zeisel, Hans, “The Vienna Years,” in Merton, Robert K., Coleman, James S., and Rossi, Peter H., eds., Qualitative and Quantitative Social Research: Papers in Honor of Paul F. Lazarsfeld (New York, 1979), 10–15Google Scholar.

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61 See Bernfeld, Siegfried, “Sozialismus und Psychoanalyse,” Der sozialistische Arzt 2/2 (1926), 15–22Google Scholar; Bernfeld, Siegfried, “Zur Frage: Psychoanalyse und Marxismus,” Der Klassenkampf 2/3 (1928), 93Google Scholar. On Lazarsfeld's friendship with Bernfeld see Lazarsfeld, 1975 Oral History, 12.

62 Lazarsfeld, 1962 Oral History, 46.

63 Ibid., 50–51, 219–20; Lazarsfeld, 1975 Oral History, 44.

64 There is some discrepancy about the date of the ÖWF's founding stemming from divergent recollections of the organization's members; I concur with Mitchell Ash in placing the date in 1927. See Ash, “Entwicklung des Instituts 1922–1938,” 314–15.

65 See Bühler and Hetzer, Kleinkindertests, unpaginated front matter.

66 Lazarsfeld, Paul F. and Bühler, Charlotte, Jugend und Beruf: Kritik und Material (Jena, 1931)Google Scholar.

67 Lazarsfeld, Paul F., Statistisches Praktikum für Psychologen und Lehrer (Jena, 1929), iii–ivGoogle Scholar.

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71 Ibid., chaps. 5–6.

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73 Ibid., 45–6. For a later elaboration of this view see Lazarsfeld, Paul F., “Notes on the History of Quantification in Sociology: Trends, Sources and Problems,” Isis 52/2 (1961), 297–311CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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75 Lazarsfeld, Statistisches Praktikum, 43.

76 Ibid., chap. 4.

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79 Lazarsfeld, “Die Bedeutung der normalen Verteilungskurve.”

80 Lazarsfeld, Statistisches Praktikum, chap. 4.

81 Ibid., 51, emphasis original.

82 Ibid., 47.

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84 See Porter, Theodore M., The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820–1900 (Princeton, 1986), chap. 6CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Desrosières, Alain, The Politics of Large Numbers: A History of Statistical Reasoning, trans. Naish, Camille (Cambridge, 2002), chaps. 3–4Google Scholar.

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89 See, inter alia, “Das Leben in Marienthal: Forschungsreise in ein Arbeitsdorf,” Der Kuckuck, 2 July 1933, 14–16; Sternheim, Andreas, “Die Arbeitslosen von Marienthal,” Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung 2/3 (1933), 416–17Google Scholar; Ernst Friedmann, “Marienthal, die müde Gemeinschaft,” Der Morgen, 12 June 1933, 10.

90 On the debates about the difficulty of defining and measuring unemployment in this period see Garraty, John A., Unemployment in History: Economic Thought and Public Policy (New York, 1978), chap. 9Google Scholar.

91 Jahoda, Zeisel, and Lazarsfeld, Marienthal, 14–17.

92 Ibid., 11.

93 Ibid., 16–17.

94 Ibid., 1–3.

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96 See Bortkiewicz, Ladislaus, Tönnies, Ferdinand, Günther, Adolf, Busse, Kurt H., Rumpf, Max, Heberle, Rudolf, Jahn, Georg, and Kaysenbrecht, Richard, “Diskussion über ‘Soziographie’,” in Soziologie, Deutsche Gesellschaft für, ed., Verhandlungen des 7. deutschen Soziologentages vom 28. September bis 1. Oktober 1930 in Berlin: Vorträge und Diskussionen in der Hauptversammlung und in den Sitzungen der Untergruppen (Tübingen, 1931), 207–32Google Scholar.

97 ÖWF, “Anweisung für Marienthal,” n.d., 2, Paul Felix Lazarsfeld Papers Series I (PFL Papers I), Box 34, Folder 17, Columbia Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University. The shift from “A” to “2” is original to the text.

98 Jahoda, Zeisel, and Lazarsfeld, Marienthal, 1–2; cf. Zeisel, Hans, “Zur Soziographie der Arbeitslosigkeit,” Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik 69/1 (1933), 96–105Google Scholar.

99 For the ÖWF's implicit comparison of its own approach to these older methods see Jahoda, Zeisel, and Lazarsfeld, Marienthal, 89–123.

100 Marienthalers recorded how they passed their days on timesheets prepared and distributed by the researchers. See ÖWF, “Freizeit-Erhebung. Fragebogen der Österreichischen Wirtschaftspsychologischen Forschungsstelle,” n.d., PFL Papers I, Box 34, Folder 16. For a description of the ÖWF's observations of Marienthalers’ movements see Jahoda, Zeisel, and Lazarsfeld, Marienthal, 59–61.

101 On the use of these methods in other Central European nations see Sułek, Antoni, “The Marienthal 1931/1932 Study and Contemporary Studies on Unemployment in Poland,” Polish Sociological Review 157/1 (2007), 3–25Google Scholar; Lebow, Katherine, “Autobiography as Complaint: Polish Social Memoir between the World Wars,” Laboratorium 6/3 (2014), 13–26Google Scholar. After relocating to the United States, Lazarsfeld made this link between the two methods apparent when he collaborated with Bohan Zawadzki. See Zawadzki, Bohan and Lazarsfeld, Paul, “The Psychological Consequences of Unemployment,” Journal of Social Psychology 6/2 (1935), 224–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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103 Jahoda, Zeisel, and Lazarsfeld, Marienthal, 30–31.

104 ÖWF, “Instruktion,” 2–4.

105 For a description of the charity see Jahoda, Zeisel, and Lazarsfeld, Marienthal, 5–6.

106 Ibid., 78.

107 Ibid., 8 n. 1.

108 Ibid., chap. 5.

109 Ibid., 34–6.

110 Ibid., 8.

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113 Jahoda, Zeisel, and Lazarsfeld, Marienthal, 16–22.

114 On “statistical” and “interpretive” types see Leichter, Käthe and Lazarsfeld, Paul F., “Erhebung bei Jugendlichen über Autorität und Familie,” in Horkheimer, Max, ed., Studien über Autorität und Familie: Forschungsberichte aus dem Institut für Sozialforschung (Paris, 1936), 353–457Google Scholar.

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117 Ibid., 48; cf. Wegs, Growing Up Working Class, 52.

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120 Ibid., 78.

121 Ibid., 48–9.

122 Desrosières has termed this conceptualization of supra-individual, social phenomena, which he attributes to Quetelet, the creation of “macrosocial objects.” Desrosières, The Politics of Large Numbers, 68, 71–81.

123 Jahoda, Zeisel, and Lazarsfeld, Marienthal, 46.

124 Ibid., 79.

125 Ibid., 84, 87.

126 Ibid., 79.

127 Ibid., 72–3.

128 Ibid., 22–4, 82.

129 Ibid., 48, 73.

130 Ibid., 72.

131 Ibid., 47–50.

132 Ibid., 69–88.

133 “Die Schrumpfung der Seele,” Arbeiter-Zeitung, 4 June 1933, 2.

134 Ibid.; cf. Käthe Leichter, “Die Frau des Arbeitslosen,” Die Frau, Oct. 1933, 9–10.

135 Jahoda, Zeisel, and Lazarsfeld, Marienthal, 69, 74.

136 Ibid., 22.

137 Marx, Karl, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, trans. Fernbach, David, vol. 3 (London, 1981; first published 1894), part 1, chap. 2, part 3, chap. 13Google Scholar. For an overview of the theory see Heinrich, Michael, “Crisis Theory, the Law of the Tendency of the Rate of Profit to Fall, and Marx's Studies in the 1870s,” Monthly Review 64/11 (2013), 15–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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141 Ibid., 407.

142 Ibid., 408.

143 Ibid.

144 Adler, “Wandlung [Part I],” 375, emphasis original.

145 Adler, “Wandlung [Part II],” 409–10, emphasis original.

146 Ibid., 410.

147 Ibid.., 411; cf. Jahoda, Zeisel, and Lazarsfeld, Marienthal, 46.

148 Adler, “Wandlung [Part II],” 411.

149 Ibid., 410.

150 See the discussion in Rabinbach, Crisis of Austrian Socialism, 141–8.

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156 According to David Morrison, the statistician Daniel Cuthbertson once responded to Lazarsfeld's self-characterization during a public presentation by shouting, “And who gave you permission?” See Morrison, David, “The Transference of Experience and the Impact of Ideas: Paul Lazarsfeld and Mass Communication Research,” Communication 10/2 (1988), 185–209Google Scholar, at 191–2.

157 Lazarsfeld, 1962 Oral History, 264.

158 Ibid., 262.

159 Ibid., 265.

160 It is at this point that Lazarsfeld and other mid-century thinkers became highly critical of the “pessimistic” nature of “European” social theory, especially as manifested in European social theorists’ dim view of “mass society.” See Katz, Elihu and Lazarsfeld, Paul F., Personal Influence: The Part Played by People in the Flow of Mass Communication (New York, 1955), chap. 1Google Scholar. For an analysis of this text's role in communications research see Pooley, Jefferson, “Fifteen Pages That Shook the Field: Personal Influence, Edward Shils, and the Remembered History of Mass Communication Research,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 608/1 (2006), 130–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

161 Leichter and Lazarsfeld, “Erhebung bei Jugendlichen.”

162 Komarovsky, Mirra, The Unemployed Man and His Family: The Effect of Unemployment upon the Status of the Man in Fifty-Nine Families (New York, 1940), 116–33Google Scholar. Lazarsfeld directed this study, which began as Komarovsky's doctoral dissertation, and introduced the published text.

163 Paul F. Lazarsfeld, “Principles of Sociography,” trans. Thelma Herman 1944 [1934], 33, PFL Papers I, Box 38, Folder 10.

164 See Leichter and Lazarsfeld, “Erhebung bei Jugendlichen”; Lazarsfeld, “Some Remarks on the Typological Procedures in Social Research”; Komarovsky, The Unemployed Man, 135–45.

165 Friedmann, “Marienthal, die müde Gemeinschaft,” 10; cf. “Schrumpfung der Seele,” 2.