Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T11:25:06.308Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

From Pararepublic to Parastate: International Leverage in Shaping Kosovo’s Secession

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 February 2020

Mladen Mrdalj
Mladen Mrdalj*
Affiliation:
International Burch University, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina; International Center for Governance Studies, Belgrade, Serbia
*
*Corresponding author. Email: mrdalj.m@husky.neu.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The Kosovo Albanian political movement in the 1990s contained three fluctuating factions with distinct strategies: boycotting Serbian institutions, participating in elections, and resorting to an armed insurgency. This article shows how expectations of external assistance, primarily from the Clinton administration, influenced which strategy was to dominate the movement at certain periods. It also shows how the movement successfully conflated the issues of human rights and the ethnonationalist secessionist agenda, even though the secessionist agenda predated the claims of human rights violations following the rise of Slobodan Milošević to power in Serbia. In the end, the article discusses how the Clinton administration’s failure in the Rambouillet peace talks, the diplomatic result of the NATO attack on Serbia, and the fall of Slobodan Milošević set the foundations for freezing the conflict and turning Kosovo into a parastate.

Keywords

KosovoparastatesSerbiafrozen conflictsecession
Type
Special Issue Article
Information
Nationalities Papers , Volume 48 , Special Issue 1: Special Issue on the Emergence and Resilience of Parastates , January 2020 , pp. 42 - 60
Copyright
© Association for the Study of Nationalities 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Besim, Abazi. 1996a. “Crveno i crno.”Google Scholar
Besim, Abazi. 1996b. “15. godina od albanskih demonstracija.”Google Scholar
ADST (The As sociation for Diplomatic Studies & Training). 2012. Bosnia – Herzegovina: Country Reader. https://adst.org/Readers/Bosnia%20&%20Herzegovina.pdf. (Accessed May 14, 2018.)Google Scholar
Ahrens, Geert-Hinrich. 2007. Diplomacy on the Edge: Containment of Ethnic Conflict and the Minorities Working Group of the Conferences on Yugoslavia. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Albright, Madelaine. 2013. Madam Secretary. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.Google Scholar
AP. 2015. “France: Kosovo: Serb President Milutinovic at Loggerheads With NATO.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RmVVah9q6pk. (Accessed June 24, 2018.)Google Scholar
Barani, Jon. 1994. “Dva problematicna “K”.” http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199404/40413-002-pubs-pri.htm. (Accessed May 23, 2018.)Google Scholar
Bataković, Dušan. 2012. Serbia’s Kosovo Drama: A Historical Perspective. Belgrade: Čigoja.Google Scholar
Bataković, Dušan. 2017. “The Case of Kosovo: Separation Vs. Integration Legacy, Identity, Nationalism.” Polska akademia umiejętności: Studia środkowoeuropejskie i bałkanistyczne 24: 105–123.Google Scholar
BBC. 2001. “The Fall of Milošević – Defiance.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YJjgC7IOtKk. (Accessed June 26, 2018.)Google Scholar
Bellamy, Alex. 2002. Kosovo and International Society. Basingstoke: Palgrave.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bieber, Florian. 2003. “Serbia After the Kosovo War: The Defeat of Nationalism and the Change of Regime.” In Understanding the War in Kosovo, edited by Bieber, Florian and Daskalovski, Židas, 321–339. London: Frank Cass Publishers.Google Scholar
Binder, David. 1982. “Yugoslavs Seek to Quell Strife in Region of Ethnic Albanians.” The New York Times, November 9.Google Scholar
Bird, Chris. 1999. “Racak Report Finds Serbs Guilty.” The Guardian, March 17.Google Scholar
Bouckaert, Peter. 2004. “Failure to Protect: Anti-Minority Violence in Kosovo, March 2004.” https://www.hrw.org/report/2004/07/25/failure-protect/anti-minority-violence-kosovo-march-2004#. (Accessed November 5, 2018.)Google Scholar
Brubaker, Rogers, and David D., Laitin. 1998. “Ethnic and Nationalist Violence.” Annual Review of Sociology 24: 423–452.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bugajski, Janusz. 1995. Ethnic Politics in Eastern Europe: A Guide to Nationality Policies, Organizations and Parties. Washington, DC: The Center for Strategic and International Studies.Google Scholar
Bugajski, Janusz. 2015. Ethnic Politics in Eastern Europe: A Guide to Nationality Policies, Organizations, and Parties. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Caplan, Richard. 2005. Europe and the Recognition of New States in Yugoslavia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caplan, Richard. 2009. Europe and the Recognition of New States in Yugoslavia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Caspersen, Nina. 2011. “Democracy, Nationalism and (Lack of) Sovereignty: the Complex Dynamics of Democratisation in Unrecognised States.” Nations and Nationalism 17 (2): 337–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, Howard. 2000. Civil Resistance in Kosovo. London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
CNN. 1998. “Contact Group: Serbia Must End Crackdown in Kosovo.” http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/europe/9806/12/contact.group.kosovo/. (Accessed June 12, 2018.)Google Scholar
Daalder, Ivo, and O’Hanlon, Michael. 2000. Winning Ugly: NATO’s War to Save Kosovo. Washington, DC: Brookings.Google Scholar
Daskalovski, Židas. 2003. “Claims to Kosovo: Nationalism and Self-Determination.” In Understanding the War in Kosovo, edited by Bieber, Florian and Daskalovski, Židas, 11–29. London: Frank Cass Publishers.Google Scholar
DioGuardi, Joseph. 1992. “Memo on Meeting with Deputy Secretary of State Lawrence Eagleburger.” https://web.archive.org/web/20140221080535/http://blog.aacl.com/the-agony-of-kosova/memo-on-meeting-with-deputy-secretary-of-state-lawrence-eagleburger/. (Accessed August 12, 2018.)Google Scholar
Duka, Valentina, and Dusan, Janjić. 2013. “Kosovo under the Milošević Regime.” In Confronting the Yugoslav Controversies: A Scholars’ Initiative, edited by Ingrao, Charles and Emmert, Allan, 274–303. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.Google Scholar
Emini, Donika, and Stakic, Isidora. 2018. Belgrade and Pristina: Lost in Normalisation? https://www.iss.europa.eu/sites/default/files/EUISSFiles/Brief%205%20Belgrade%20and%20Pristina.pdf. (Accessed May 10, 2019.)Google Scholar
Ertel, Manfred. 2006. Negotiations Lean Toward Independence. https://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/final-status-for-kosovo-negotiations-lean-toward-independence-a-402188.html. (Accessed May 10, 2019.)Google Scholar
Fearon, James, and Laitin, David. 2003. “Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War.” American Political Science Review 97 (1): 75–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fearon, James. 1995. “Rationalist Explanations for War.” International Organization 49 (3): 379–414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
FHP-HLC (Fond za humanitarno pravo - Humanitarian Law Center). 2015. “31.600 dokumenata nedvosmisleno potvrđuje smrt ili nestanak 13.535 osoba tokom rata na Kosovu.” http://www.hlc-rdc.org/?p=28185. (Accessed July 21, 2018.)Google Scholar
Gagnon, V. P. 2004. The Myth of Ethnic War: Serbia and Croatia in the 1990s. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Goldgeier, James. 1999. Not Whether but When: The U.S. Decision to Enlarge NATO. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution.Google Scholar
Guzina, Dejan. 2003. “Kosovo or Kosova: Could It Be Both? The Case of Interlocking Serbian and Albanian Nationalisms.” In Understanding the War in Kosovo, edited by Bieber, Florian and Daskalovski, Židas, 31–53. London: Frank Cass Publishers.Google Scholar
Hajdari, Ismet. 1993. “Jos jedan bojkot”. http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199311/31116-001-pubs-pri.htm. (Accessed June 19, 2018.)Google Scholar
Helsingin, Sanomat. 2008. “Helena Ranta: Foreign Ministry Tried to Influence Kosovo Reports.” http://www.hs.fi/english/article/1135240292632. (Accessed October 16, 2008.)Google Scholar
Hill, Christopher. 2014. Outpost: Life on the Frontiers of American Diplomacy. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Hosmer, Stephen. 2001. The Conflict Over Kosovo: Why Milošević Decided to Settle When He Did. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.Google Scholar
Howe, Marvin. 1981a. “Roots of Yugoslav Riots: Vague ‘Enemy’ Blamed.” The New York Times, April 20.Google Scholar
Howe, Marvin. 1981b. “Yugoslavs, Shaken by Riots, Fear Plot.” The New York Times, April 27.Google Scholar
Howe, Marvin. 1982c, “Exodus of Serbians Stirs Province in Yugoslavia.” The New York Times, July 12.Google Scholar
ICTY (International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia). 2009. http://www.icty.org/x/cases/milutinovic/tjug/en/jud090226-e1of4.pdf. (Accessed May 12, 2018.)Google Scholar
ICJ (The International Court of Justice). 2010. Page 27. https://www.icj-cij.org/files/case-related/141/141-20100722-ADV-01-00-EN.pdf. (Accessed June 13, 2018.)Google Scholar
J.J. 2015. “Kandić: Na Kosovu 13.535 žrtava rata.” http://www.novimagazin.rs/vesti/kandic-na-kosovu-13535-zrtava-rata. (Accessed June 29, 2018.)Google Scholar
Johnson, A. Ross. 1983. Political Leadership in Yugoslavia: Evolution of the League of Communists. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.Google Scholar
Johnson, A. Ross. 1982, Impressions of Post-Tito Yugoslavia: A Trip Report. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.Google Scholar
Jović, Dejan. 2009. Yugoslavia: A State That Withered Away. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press.Google Scholar
Judah, Tim. 2000. Kosovo: War and Revenge. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Judah, Tim. 2008. Kosovo: What Everyone Needs to Know. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kalyvas, Stathis, and Balcells, Laia. 2010. “International System and Technologies of Rebellion: How the End of the Cold War Shaped Internal Conflict.” American Political Science Review 104 (3): 415–429.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufman, Michael. 1992. “A Different Kind of War in Kosovo: Serbian Repression vs. Quiet Resistance.” The New York Times, June 23.Google Scholar
Kostovicova, Denisa. 2005. Kosovo: The Politics of Identity and Space. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krasniqi, Arben. 1998a. “Nemaglovite Gelbardove poruke.” http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199802/80224-034-pubs-pri.htm. (Accessed June 19, 2018.)Google Scholar
Krasniqi, Arben. 1998b. “Uprkos svemu - pregovori!?” http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199809/80922-002-pubs-pri.htm. (Accessed June 21, 2018.)Google Scholar
Kuperman, A.J. 2002. Tragic Challenges and the Moral Hazard of Humanitarian Intervention: How and why Ethnic Groups Provoke Genocidal Retaliation. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, PhD thesis.Google Scholar
Little, Alan. 2000. “Moral Combat: NATO at War.” http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/events/panorama/transcripts/transcript_12_03_00.txt. (Accessed July 2, 2018.)Google Scholar
Malcolm, Noel. 1999. Kosovo: A Short History. New York: Perennial - Harper Collins.Google Scholar
Maliqi, Shkëlzen. 1994a. “1995: godina prestrojavanja oko Kosova.” http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199412/41230-002-pubs-pri.htm. (Accessed June 7, 2018.)Google Scholar
Maliqi, Shkëlzen. 1994b. “Mesovite albansko-srpske banke na Kosovu?” http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199407/40719-003-pubs-pri.htm. (Accessed June 10, 2018.)Google Scholar
Maliqi, Shkëlzen. 1995a. “Kriza na juznom Balkanu.” http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199510/51004-003-pubs-pri.htm. (Accessed June 26, 2018.)Google Scholar
Maliqi, Shkëlzen. 1995b. “Dejton preloman i za Kosovo.” http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199511/51106-002-pubs-pri.htm. (Accessed June 3, 2018.)Google Scholar
Maliqi, Shkëlzen. 1996. “Kosovo - novi balkanski splav?” http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199602/60208-003-pubs-pri.htm. (Accessed June 21, 2018.)Google Scholar
Maliqi, Shkëlzen. 1998. “Pregovori o ocuvanju kosovskih granica?” http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199805/80516-026-pubs-pri.htm. (Accessed June 5, 2018.)Google Scholar
Maliqi, Shkëlzen. 2014. Kosovo i raspad Jugoslavije. Beograd: Most Art.Google Scholar
Meier, Viktor. 1999. Yugoslavia: A History of its Demise. London, New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Memeti, Ibrahim. 1993. “Intervju: Iljaz Halimi.” http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199312/31230-004-pubs-sko.htm. (Accessed July 21, 2018.)Google Scholar
Mertus, Julie. 1999. Kosovo: How Myths and Truths Started a War. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Mertus, Julie. 2000. Kosovo: How Myths and Truths Started a War. Los Angeles: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Milošević, Slobodan. 1989. Godine raspleta. Beograd: Beogradski izdavačko-grafički zavod.Google Scholar
Nikolić, Lazar. 2003. “Ethnic Prejudices and Discrimination; The Case of Kosovo.” In Understanding the War in Kosovo, edited by Bieber, Florian and Daskalovski, Židas, 53–79. London: Frank Cass Publishers.Google Scholar
Norris, John 2005. Collision Course: NATO, Russia, and Kosovo. Westport, CT: Praeger Publication.Google Scholar
NYT – The New York Times. 1981a. “Yugoslavia Adds Police in Troubled Albanian Area.” The New York Times, June 14. https://www.nytimes.com/1981/06/14/world/yugoslavia-adds-police-in-troubled-albanian-area.html. (Accessed January 20, 2019.)Google Scholar
NYT – The New York Times. 1981b. “Rioting by Albanian Nationalists has Left Scars in Yugoslav Region.” The New York Times,October 19. https://www.nytimes.com/1981/10/19/world/rioting-by-albanian-nationists-has-left-scars-in-yugoslav-region.html. (Accessed January 21, 2019.)Google Scholar
Oroši, Violeta and Džezairi, Seljadin. 1991. “Svi zatvaraju oči.” Belgrade: Vreme.Google Scholar
Oroši, Violeta and Džezairi, Seljadin. 1992. “Većini veća odgovornost.” Belgrade: Vreme.Google Scholar
Pacarizi, Rrahman. 1998. “Okupljanje politickih partija oko OVK?” http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199806/80622-020-pubs-pri.htm. (Accessed June 17, 2018.)Google Scholar
Paquin, Jonathan. 2008. “Managing Controversy: U.S. Stability Seeking and the Birth of the Macedonian State.” Foreign Policy Analysis 4: 437–458.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pellet, Alain. 1992. “The Opinions of the Badinter Arbitration Committee.” European Journal of International Law 3 (1): 178–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perritt, Henry H. Jr. 2008. Kosovo Liberation Army: The Inside Story of an Insurgency. Chicago: The University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Petersen, Roger. 2002. Understanding Ethnic Violence: Fear, Hatred, Resentment in Twentieth Century Eastern Europe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petrović, Ruža, Blagojević, Marina. 1992. Migration of Serbs and Montenegrins from Kosovo and Metohija: Results of a Survey Conducted from 1985 to 1986: Summary, Statements Made by Serbs and Montenegrins (Excerpts). Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Demographic Studies, Vol. III, Belgrade.Google Scholar
Putin, Vladimir. 2007. Munich Security Conference Speech. http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/transcripts/24034. (Accessed June 19, 2018.)Google Scholar
Rainio, Juha, Lalu, Kaisa, and Penttila, Antti. 2001. “Independent Forensic Autopsies in an Armed Conflict: Investigation of the Victims from Racak, Kosovo.” Forensic Science International 116: 171–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramet, Sabrina P. 2005. Thinking About Yugoslavia: Scholarly Debates About the Yugoslav Breakup and the Wars in Bosnia and Kosovo. Cambridge. UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rexhepi, Fehim. 1996. “Ne!(?) - srpskim izborima.” http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199609/60904-003-pubs-pri.htm. (Accessed July 22, 2018.)Google Scholar
Rexhepi, Fehim. 1998. “Srpsko-albanski pregovori bez garancije uspeha.” http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199805/80514-037-pubs-pri.htm. (Accessed July 20, 2018.)Google Scholar
Rohter, Larry. 1990. “Panama and US Strive to Settle on Death Toll.” https://www.nytimes.com/1990/04/01/world/panama-and-us-strive-to-settle-on-death-toll.html. (Accessed July 17, 2018.)Google Scholar
RTS. 2010. “Svedok: Milan Milutinovic.” http://www.rts.rs/page/tv/sr/story/20/rts-1/627921/svedok-milan-milutinovic.html. (Accessed July 22, 2018.)Google Scholar
Rossi, Christopher R. 2016. “Impaled on Morton’s Fork: Kosovo, Crimea, and the Sui Generis Circumstance.” Emory International Law Review 30 (3): 353–390.Google Scholar
Sefki, Morina. 1995. “Intervju sa predsednikom Helsinskog komiteta Kosova Gazmendom Puljom.” http://www.aimpress.ch/dyn/pubs/archive/data/199501/50107-001-pubs-pri.htm. (Accessed June 30, 2018.)Google Scholar
Sell, Louis. 2003. Slobodan Milošević and the Destruction of Yugoslavia. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Serwer, Daniel. 2004. “Kosovo: Status with Standards.” https://www.usip.org/publications/2004/04/kosovo-status-standards. (Accessed November 21, 2018.)Google Scholar
Simić, Predrag. 2000. Put u Rambuje: kosovska kriza 1995-2000. Beograd: Nea. Sociology 24: 423–452.Google Scholar
Spoerri, Marlene. 2015. Engineering Revolution: The Paradox of Democracy Promotion in Serbia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Stefanović, Nenad. 1996. “Pobuna demokratske Srbije.” https://www.vreme.com/cms/view.php?id=1391001. (Accessed June 12, 2018.)Google Scholar
Treverton, Gregory F., and Miles, Renanah. 2015. Unheeded Warning of War: Why Policymakers Ignored the 1990 Yugoslavia Estimate. Washington, DC: Center for the Study of Intelligence.Google Scholar
UN (United Nations). 1999. “Resolution 1244 (1999).” https://undocs.org/S/RES/1244(1999). (Accessed July 23, 2018.)Google Scholar
USIP (United States Institute of Peace). 1999. “Interim Agreement for Peace and Self-Government in Kosovo. Rambouillet, France - February 23, 1999.” https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/file/resources/collections/peace_agreements/kosovo_ramb.pdf. (Accessed July 28, 2018.)Google Scholar
Vickers, Miranda. 1998. Between Serb and Albanian: A History of Kosovo. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Vladisavljević, Nebojša. 2008. Serbia’s Antibureaucratic Revolution. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weller, Marc. 2008. Peace Lost: The Failure of Conflict Prevention in Kosovo. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimmerman, Warren. 1996. In: U.S. and Russian Policymaking with Respect to the Use of Force, edited by Azrael, Jeremy and Payin, Emil, 177–201. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.Google Scholar
Zimmerman, Warren. 1999. Origins of a Catastrophe: Yugoslavia and Its Destroyers. New York: Times Book.Google Scholar

Interview

Vujačić, Ivan. Lecture to Northeastern University Students in the hotel “Prag.” Belgrade, Serbia. August 1, 2015.Google Scholar