Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T19:07:19.307Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Nagorny Karabakh conflict: Prospects for conflict transformation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2018

Artak Ayunts ,
Mikayel Zolyan  and
Tigran Zakaryan
Artak Ayunts*
Affiliation:
Department of Sociology, Yerevan State University, 1 Alex Manoogian, Yerevan 0025, Armenia
Mikayel Zolyan
Affiliation:
Yerevan Brusov State University of Languages and Social Sciences, UNESCO Chair on Human Rights, Democracy and European Languages, 42 Tumanyan, Yerevan 0002, Armenia
Tigran Zakaryan
Affiliation:
Armenian National Academy of Science, 24 Marshal Baghramian Avenuea, Yerevan 0019, Armenia
*
∗Corresponding author. Email: aayunts@gmail.com; ayunts@yahoo.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The article explores the current stalemate in the Nagorny Karabakh conflict, and perspectives for conflict transformation. As the conflict has remained dormant for more than 20 years, the political systems of the countries engaged in the conflict have adjusted to the conflict situation. The conflict is often used by the political elites in order to legitimize their power, consolidate support, marginalize opponents, and neutralize democratizing pressures. Since the status quo serves the interests of the authorities, the ruling regimes do not have strong incentives to seek conflict resolution. In these conditions, conflict transformation approaches are considered a necessary means to deal with the conflict. Given that political elites have little incentive to implement such transformation, civil society actors come increasingly to the fore. Only through multitrack initiatives supported by civil society actors, we argue, can conflict transformation practices advance and subsequently bring peace to the region.

Keywords

conflict transformationNagorny Karabakhpeacebuildingauthoritarianismcivil society
Type
Articles
Information
Nationalities Papers , Volume 44 , Issue 4 , July 2016 , pp. 543 - 559
Copyright
Copyright © 2016 Association for the Study of Nationalities 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abasov, Ali, and Khachatryan, Harutyun. 2005. Karabakh Conflict: Variants of a Settlement: Concepts and Reality. Baku: Areat/NoyanTapan.Google Scholar
Altstadt, Audrey L. 1992. The Azerbaijani Turks: Power and Identity under Russian Rule. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press.Google Scholar
Astourian, Stephan H. 1994. “In Search of Their Forefathers: National Identity and the Historiography and Politics of Armenian and Azerbaijani Ethnogeneses.” In Nationalism and History: The Politics of Nation Building in Post-Soviet Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, edited by Schwartz, Donald and Panossian, Razmik, 41–94. Toronto: University of Toronto Centre for Russian and East European Studies.Google Scholar
Augsburger, David. 1992. Conflict Mediation across Cultures. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press.Google Scholar
Ayunts, Artak. 2010. “Madrid Principles: Basis for Conflict Settlement or War?” Accessed June 4, 2014. http://caucasusedition.net/analysis/madrid-principles-basis-for-conflict-settlement-or-war/.Google Scholar
Ayunts, Artak. 2011. “Return and its Alternatives, Perspectives from Armenia.” In Forced Displacement in the Nagorno Karabakh Conflict: Return and its Alternatives, edited by Resources, Conciliation, 23–31. London: Conciliation Resources.Google Scholar
Ayunts, Artak. 2012. “Current Format of Negotiations over Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict: Perspectives from Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh.” Accessed May 29, 2014. http://caucasusedition.net/analysis/current-format-of-negotiations-over-nagorno-karabakh-conflict-perspectives-from-armenia-and-nagorno-karabakh/.Google Scholar
Ayunts, Artak. 2014. “Nagorny Karabakh Conflict Escalation and the Peace Process.” Caucasus Analytical Digest, 65, September 17. http://www.css.ethz.ch/publications/pdfs/CAD-65.pdf.Google Scholar
Baghdasaryan, Gegham. 2013. ‘“Working the Enemy's Mill’ — Putting the Brake on Internal Development in Nagorny Karabakh: A Media Study of the Image of the ‘Enemy’.” In Myths and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Instrumentalisation of Conflict in Political Discourse. Vol. 2, edited by Jana Javakhishvili and Liana Kvarchelia, 92–108. London: International Alert.Google Scholar
BBC. 2008. “Karabakh Casualty Toll Disputed.” BBC, March 5. Accessed June 4, 2014. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7278871.stm.Google Scholar
Blakkisrud, Helge, and Kolst⊘, Pal. 2012. “Dynamics of de facto statehood: the South Caucasian de facto states between secession and sovereignty.” Southeast European and Black Sea Studies 12 (2): 281–298.Google Scholar
Broers, Laurence. 2014. “Confidence-building in the Karabakh Conflict: What Next?” Caucasus Edition. Accessed June 3, 2014. http://caucasusedition.net/analysis/confidence-building-in-the-karabakh-conflict-what-next/.Google Scholar
Bunce, Valerie J., and Wolchik, Sharon L. 2011. Defeating Authoritarian Leaders in Postcommunist Countries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Burton, John, ed. 1990. Conflict: Human Needs Theory. London: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Caspersen, Nina. 2013. “The South Caucasus after Kosovo: Renewed Independence Hopes?” Europe-Asia Studies 65 (5): 929–945.Google Scholar
Cheterian, Vicken. 2009. War and Peace in the Caucasus: Russia's Troubled Frontier. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Cheterian, Vicken. 2012. “Karabakh Conflict After Kosovo: No Way Out?” Nationalities Papers 40 (5): 703–720.Google Scholar
Clements, Kevin. 1997. “Peace Building and Conflict Transformation.” Peace and Conflict Studies 4 (1): 3–13.Google Scholar
Coleman, Peter. 2011. The Five Percent, Finding Solutions to Seemingly Impossible Conflicts. New York: Public Affairs.Google Scholar
Collier, Paul, and Hoeffler, Anke. 2000. Greed and Grievance in Civil War. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Collins, James F., and Warlick, James. 2014. “Nagorny Karabakh: Keys to a Settlement.” Carnegie Endowment for Global Peace. Accessed June 3, 2014. http://carnegieendowment.org/2014/05/07/nagorny-karabakh-keys-to-settlement/ha7v.Google Scholar
Cornell, Svante. 2002. “Autonomy as a Source of Conflict. Caucasian Conflicts in Theoretical Perspective.” World Politics 54 (2): 245–276.Google Scholar
Coser, Lewis A. 1956. The Functions of Social Conflict. London: The Free Press.Google Scholar
CRRC (Caucasus Research and Resource Centers). 2011. “Caucasus Barometer.” Accessed September 29, 2014. http://caucasusbarometer.org/en/cb2011/CNTRDEM/.Google Scholar
CRRC (Caucasus Research and Resource Centers). 2012. “Caucasus Barometer.” Accessed September 29, 2014. http://caucasusbarometer.org/en/cb2012/CNTRDEM/.Google Scholar
CRRC (Caucasus Research and Resource Centers). 2013. “Caucasus Barometer.” Accessed September 29, 2014. http://caucasusbarometer.org/en/cb2013/CNTRDEM/.Google Scholar
Curle, Adam. 1990. Tools for Transformation. Stroud: Hawthorn Press.Google Scholar
Diamond, Louise. 1996. Multi-Track Diplomacy: A Systems Approach to Peace. West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press.Google Scholar
Economist. 2008. “A Caucasian Cheese Circle: The Secret Diplomacy of Cheesemaking.” May 22. Eurasia Partnership Foundation. 2014. “Linking Civil Society Peacebuilders with Policy-Level Stakeholders.” Accessed December 11, 2014. http://www.epfarmenia.am/en/current-programs/cross-border/armenia-azerbaijan/linking-civil-society-peace-builders-with-policy-level-stakeholders-stage-two/.Google Scholar
Freire, Maria Raquel, and Simão, Licínia. 2007. The Armenian Road to Democracy, Dimensions of a Tortuous Process. CEPS Working Document No. 267/May 2007. Brussels: Center for European Policy Studies.Google Scholar
Freizer, Sabine. 2014. “Twenty Years after the Nagorny Karabakh Ceasefire: An Opportunity to Move towards More Inclusive Conflict Resolution.” Caucasus Survey 1 (2): 109–122.Google Scholar
Galtung, Johan. 1995. “Conflict Resolution as Conflict Transformation: The First Law of Thermodynamics Revisited.” In Conflict Transformation, edited by Rupesinghe, Kumar, 51–64. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Galtung, Johan. 2002. Searching for Peace, the Road to Transcend. London: Pluto Press.Google Scholar
Gamaghelyan, Philip, and Rumyantsev, Sergey. 2013. “Armenia and Azerbaijan: The Nagorny Karabakh Conflict and the Reinterpretation of Narratives in History Textbooks.” In Myths and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Instrumentalisation of Historical Narratives. Vol. 1, edited by Oksana Karpenko and Jana Javakhishvili, 166–188. London: International Alert.Google Scholar
Geukjian, Ohannes. 2012. Ethnicity, Nationalism and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Nagorno-Karbakh and the Legacy of Soviet Nationalities Policy. Farnham: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Gradlyan, Anna. 2013. “From Resolution to Transformation: Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict and the Need for More Civil Society Engagement.” Caucasus Edition. Accessed June 14, 2014. http://caucasusedition.net/analysis/from-resolution-to-transformation-nagorno-karabakh-conflict-and-the-need-for-more-civil-society-engagement/.Google Scholar
Hetq.am. 2012. “Helsinki Citizen's Assembly — Why Didn't Vanadzor Police Intervene?” Accessed June 14, 2014. http://hetq.am/eng/news/13256/helsinki-citizens-assembly—why-didnt-vanadzor-police-intervene?.html.Google Scholar
Hovhannisyan, Mikayel. 2013. “The Use of Images of the External Friend and Enemy in Armenian Domestic Political Discourse: An Analysis of Speeches Given by the First President Levon Ter-Petrosyan (September 2007-May 2011).” In Myths and Conflict in the South Caucasus: Instrumentalisation of Conflict in Political Discourse. Vol. 2, edited by Jana Javakhishvili and Liana Kvarchelia, 58–76. London: International Alert.Google Scholar
Hunter, Shireen. 1994. The Transcaucasus in Transition: Nation-building and Conflict. Washington, DC: The Center for Strategic and International Studies.Google Scholar
Huseinova, Sevil, Hakobyan, Arsen, and Rumyantsev, Sergey. 2012. Beyond the Karabakh Conflict: The Story of Village Exchange. Tbilisi: Heinrich Boell Stiftung South Caucasus.Google Scholar
Huseynli, Fidan. 2011. “The EU's Changing Role in the Nagorno-Karabakh Negotiation Process: Realities, Limits and Perspectives.” Accessed June 4, 2014. http://caucasusedition.net/analysis/the-eu%E2%80%99s-changing-role-in-the-nagorno-karabakh-negotiation-process-realities-limits-and-perspectives/.Google Scholar
ICG (International Crisis Group). 2013. Armenia and Azerbaijan: A Season of Risks. September 26. Baku: International Crisis Group.Google Scholar
International Alert. 2013. Advancing the Prospects for Peace: 20 Years of Civil Peacebuilding in the Context of the Nagorny Karabakh Conflict. London: International Alert.Google Scholar
Iskandaryan, Aleksandr, and Harutyunyan, Babken. 1999. “Armenia: ‘Karabakhizatsia Natsionalnoi Istorii.'” [Karbakhization of National History]. In Natsionalnye istorii v Sovetskom i postsovetskikh gosudarstvakh [National Histories in Soviet and Post-Soviet States], edited by Karl Eimermacher and Gennadiy Bordyugov, 147–160. Moscow: Airo-X.Google Scholar
IWPR (Institute for War and Peace Reporting). 2007. “Caucasian Enemies Engage in Unofficial Trade.” Global Voices: Caucasus CRS Issue 396. Accessed 5 June, 2014. http://iwpr.net/report-news/caucasian-enemies-engage-unofficial-trade.Google Scholar
IWPR (Institute for War and Peace Reporting) 2014. “Fears for Azeri-Armenian Citizen Diplomacy.” Global Voices: Caucasus CRS Issue 735. Accessed June 3, 2014. http://iwpr.net/report-news/fears-azeri-armenian-citizen-diplomacy.Google Scholar
Kaufmann, Stuart J. 2001. Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Kolst⊘, Pål, and Blakkisrud, Helge. 2008. “Living with Non-Recognition: State and Nation-Building in South Caucasian Quasi-states.” Europe-Asia Studies 60 (3): 483–509.Google Scholar
Kolst⊘, Pål, and Blakkisrud, Helge. 2012. “De Facto States and Democracy: The Case of Nagorno Karabakh.” Communist and Postcommunist Studies 45 (1–2): 141–151.Google Scholar
Kriesberg, Louis. 1989. “Transforming Conflicts in the Middle East and Central Europe.” In Intractable Conflicts and Their Transformation, edited by Louis Kriesberg, Terrell Northrup, and Thorson, Stuart, 109–131. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar
Kriesberg, Louis. 1997. “The Development of the Conflict Resolution Field.” In Peacemaking in International Context: Methods and Techniques, edited by William Zartman, I. and Lewis Rasmussen, J., 51–77. Washington, DC: Institute of Peace Press.Google Scholar
Krikorian, Onnik. 2011. “Armenia-Azerbaijan Peacebuilding Kicks off in Tekali, Georgia.” March 17. Peace and Collaborative Development Network. Accessed June 3, 2014. http://www.intemationalpeaceandconflict.org/profiles/blogs/armeniaazerbaij an-1#.U4LUI_mSxe8.Google Scholar
Lederach, John Paul. 1997. Building Peace, Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace.Google Scholar
Lederach, John Paul. 2001. “Civil Society and Reconciliation.” In Turbulent Peace: The Challenges of Managing International Conflict, edited by Crocker, C., 841–855. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press.Google Scholar
Levitsky, Steven, and Way, Lucan A. 2010. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Libaridian, Gerard J. 2007. Modern Armenia: People, Nation, State. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.Google Scholar
Lynch, Dov. 2002. “Separatist States and Post-Soviet Conflicts.” International Affairs 78 (4): 831–848.Google Scholar
Malkasian, Mark. 1996. “Gha-ra-bagh!”: The Emergence of the National Democratic Movement in Armenia. Detroit: Wayne State University Press.Google Scholar
Matveeva, Anna. 2002. “Nagorno Karabakh: A Straightforward Territorial Conflict.” In Searching for Peace in Europe and Eurasia: An Overview of Conflict Prevention and Peacebuilding Activities, edited by Paul van Tongeren, Hans van de Veen, and Verhoeven, Juliette, 445–467. London: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
Miall, Hugh. 2004. Conflict Transformation: A Multi-Dimensional Task. Berghof: Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Christopher. 1989. The Structure of International Conflict. London: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Mitchell, Christopher. 2002. “Beyond Resolution: What Does Conflict Transformation Actually Transform?” Peace and Conflict Studies 9 (1): 1–23.Google Scholar
Mooradian, Moorad, and Druckman, Daniel. 1999. “Hurting Stalemate or Mediation: The Conflict over Nagorno Karabakh 1990–1995.” Journal Of Peace Research 36 (6): 709–727.Google Scholar
Musabayov, Rasim. 2005. “Karabakh Conflict and Democratization.” In Conciliation Resources. The Limits of Leadership: Elites and Societies in the Nagorny Karabakh Peace Process, edited by Broers, Laurence, 17–63. London: Conciliation Resources.Google Scholar
Muth, Sebastian. 2014. “War, Language Removal and Self-identification in the linguistic landscapes of Nagorno-Karabakh.” Nationalities Papers 42 (1): 63–87.Google Scholar
News.az. 2013. “Armenian Products Cannot be Imported to Azerbaijan.” Accessed November 7. http://news.az/articles/economy/84077.Google Scholar
O'Beachain, Donnacha, and Polese, Abel, eds. 2010. The Colour Revolutions in the Former Soviet Republics: Successes and Failures. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
O'Lear, Shannon. 2007. “Azerbaijan's Resource Wealth: Political Legitimacy and Public Opinion.” The Geographical Journal 173 (3): 207–223.Google Scholar
Open Democracy. 2014. “Nagorno-Karabakh: The Not-So-Frozen Conflict.” Accessed October 9. https://www.opendemocracy.net/od-russia/neil-melvin/nagornokarabakh-notsofrozen-conflict.Google Scholar
OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe). 2007. “OSCE Minsk Group Co-Chairs issue statement on Nagorno-Karabakh.” Accessed June 3, 2014. http://www.osce.org/node/49237.Google Scholar
OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe). 2009. “Statement by the OSCE Minsk Group Co-Chair countries.” Accessed July 10. http://www.osce.org/mg/51152.Google Scholar
OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe). 2013. “Press Release by the Co-Chairs of the OSCE Minsk Group.” Accessed June 3, 2014. http://www.osce.org/mg/99955.Google Scholar
RFERL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty). 2013. “Azeri Author Sends Unpopular Message to Armenians: ‘We Can Live Together'.” Accessed June 1, 2014. http://www.rferl.org/content/armenia-azerbaijan-stone-dreams-akram-aylisli/24890815.html.Google Scholar
Rupesinghe, Kumar. 1995. “Conflict Transformation.” In Conflict Transformation, edited by Rupesinghe, Kumar, 65–92. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Saferworld. 2012. Putting People First, Reducing Frontline Tension in Armenia and Azerbaijan, Nagorny Karabakh. London: Saferworld.Google Scholar
Shiriyev, Zaur. 2014. “Nagorny Karabakh Conflict.” Caucasus Analytical Digest, 65, September 17. http://www.css.ethz.ch/publications/pdfs/CAD-65.pdf.Google Scholar
Shnirelman, Viktor. 2001. The Value of the Past: Myths, Identity and Politics in Transcaucasia. Osaka: National Museum of Ethnology.Google Scholar
Shnirelman, Viktor. 2003. Voiny pamiati: Mify, identichnost’ i politika v Zakavkazye [Memory Wars: Myths, Identity and Politics in Transcaucasus]. Moscow: Akademkniga.Google Scholar
Suny, Ronald Grigor. 1993. Looking toward Ararat: Armenia in Modern History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Swietochowski, Tadeusz. 1995. Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Today's Zaman. 2013. ‘“Stone Dreams’ Breaks Stereotypes between Azeris, Armenians.” Accessed February 17. http://www.todayszaman.com/news-307281-stone-dreams-breaks-stereotypes-between-azeris-armenians.html.Google Scholar
Tokluoglu, Ceylan. 2011. The Political Discourse of the Azerbaijani Elite on the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict (1991–2009).” Europe-Asia Studies 63 (7): 1223–1252.Google Scholar
Vayrynen, Raimo. 1991. “To Settle or to Transform? Perspectives on the Resolution of National and International Conflict.” In New Directions in Conflict Theory, edited by Vayrynen, Raimo, 1–25. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
de Waal, Thomas. 2003. Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
de Waal, Thomas. 2010a. The Caucasus: An Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
de Waal, Thomas. 2010b. “Remaking the Nagorno-Karabakh Peace Process.” Survival: Global Politics and Strategy 52 (4): 159–176.Google Scholar
YPC (Yerevan Press Club). 2013. Glossary of Hate Speech in the Media of Armenia and Azerbaijan (based on joint research by Yerevan Press Club and “Yeni Nesil” Journalist Union). Baku-Yerevan: Yerevan Press Club http://www.ypc.am/upload/GLOSSARY_eng.pdf.Google Scholar
Zamejc, Anna. 2013. “Seeking Peace: What Needs to be Done for the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict.” The Caucasus Edition: Journal of Conflict Transformation. Accessed June 4, 2014. http://caucasusedition.net/analysis/seeking-peace-what-needs-to-be-done-for-the-nagorno-karabakh-conflict/.Google Scholar
Zolyan, Mikayel. 2006. “Narratives of History and the Representation of an Ethnic Conflict: The Case of Nagorno-Karabakh.” In Nationalisms Across the Globe. Vol. 2, edited by Wojciech J. Burszta, Tomasz Kamusella and Sebastian Wojciechowski, 199–209. Poznan: School of Humanities and Journalism.Google Scholar
Zolyan, Mikayel, and Zakaryan, Tigran. 2010. “Obraz Sebia, Obraz Drugogo i Obraz Vraga v Shkol'nykh Uchebnikakh Postsovetskoi Armenii” [The Image of the Self, the Image of the Other, and the Image of the Enemy in School Textbooks of Post-Soviet Armenia]. In Mnogolikaia Klio: Boi za istoriiu v postovetskom prostranstve [Clio has Many Faces: Battles for History in the Post-Soviet Space], edited by Georg-Eckert-Institut, 785–795. Braunschweig: Georg-Eckert-Institut fur Internationale Schulbuchforschung.Google Scholar
Zurcher, Cristoph. 2007. The Post-Soviet Wars: Rebellion, Ethnic Conflict, and Nationhood in the Caucasus. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar