Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T22:06:03.182Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A late antique statuary collection at Ostia's sanctuary of Magna Mater: a case-study in late Roman religion and tradition

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 September 2013

Douglas Boin
Get access

Abstract

Throughout the Mediterranean the study of the destruction, reuse, moving and preservation of statues has provided a window onto the transformation of Rome during a time of ascendant Christianity. The preservation of statuary collections is increasingly important in this regard. Archival research has revealed the discovery of one such collection at Ostia's Sanctuary of Magna Mater, a treasure trove of sculptures, reliefs and at least one bronze statue. All were well preserved, and several were found in the open spaces of the sanctuary. Together they span 500 years of history, stretching into the late fourth century. Unfortunately, the late antique significance of this group has never been acknowledged. This paper situates that collection within the social world of late antique Ostia, where many statues of both sacred and non-sacred subjects remained on display. The late fourth-century dedication, in particular, set alongside the earlier pieces, demonstrates that the ‘mood and motivations’ of traditional Roman religion, in Clifford Geertz's terms, also remained quite visible. The presence of this accumulated tradition, a hallmark of Rome's ‘civil religion’ for centuries, testifies to the high social status afforded one of Ostia's most historic sites, even during an increasingly Christian age.

Ovunque nel Mediterraneo, lo studio della distruzione, riuso, movimento e conservazione delle statue ha fornito un osservatorio sulla trasformazione di Roma nel periodo dell'ascesa del cristianesimo. La conservazione delle collezioni statuarie è sempre più significativa a questo riguardo. Ricerche d'archivio hanno rivelato la scoperta di una simile collezione nel santuario della Magna Mater ad Ostia, una preziosa raccolta di sculture, rilievi e almeno una statua di bronzo. Tutti erano ben conservati e molti furono trovati negli spazi aperti del santuario. Nel complesso coprono 500 anni di storia, arrivando fino al tardo IV secolo d.C. Sfortunatamente il significato di questo gruppo per il periodo tardo-antico non è mai stato compreso. Questo articolo colloca quella raccolta all'interno della società di Ostia tardo-antica, dove molte statue di soggetti sia sacri sia profani rimasero in vista. La dedica del tardo IV secolo, in particolare, rinvenuta accanto ai pezzi più antichi, dimostra che ‘l’anima e le motivazioni' della religione tradizionale romana, nei significati di Clifford Geertz, rimasero abbastanza visibili. La presenza di questa tradizione dell'accumulo, un marchio della ‘religione civile’ di Roma per secoli, testimonia l'alto stato sociale permesso ad uno dei siti più storici di Ostia, anche durante il periodo della crescita del cristianesimo.

Type
Articles
Information
Papers of the British School at Rome , Volume 81 , October 2013 , pp. 247 - 277
Copyright
Copyright © British School at Rome 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Alföldy, G. (2001) Difficillima tempora: urban life, inscriptions and mentality in late antique Rome. In Burns, T. and Eadie, J. (eds), Urban Centers and Rural Contexts: 3–24. East Lansing, Michigan State University Press.Google Scholar
Alvar Ezquerra, J. (2008) Romanising Oriental Gods: Myth, Salvation and Ethics in the Cults of Cybele, Isis and Mithras, translated and edited by Gordon, R.. Leiden, Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Auffart, C. (2008) Teure Ideologie — billige Praxis: die ‘kleinen’ Opfer in der Römischen Kaiserzeit. In Stavrianopoulou, E., Michaels, A. and Ambos, C. (eds), Transformations in Sacrificial Practices: from Antiquity to Modern Times: 147–70. Piscataway (NJ), Transaction Publishers.Google Scholar
Auffart, C. (2009) Götterbilder im Römischen Griechenland: von Temple zum Museum? In Hekster, O., Schmidt-Hofner, S. and Witschel, C. (eds), Ritual Dynamics and Religious Change in the Roman Empire: 307–26. Leiden, Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bardill, J. (2012) Constantine: Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age. New York, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Barnes, T.D. (2011) Constantine: Dynasty, Religion and Power in the Later Roman Empire. Malden, Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Bassett, S. (2004) The Urban Image of Late Antique Constantinople. New York, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bauer, F.A. (1996) Stadt, Platz, und Denkmal in der Spätantike. Mainz, Philipp von Zabern.Google Scholar
Bauer, F.A. and Witschel, C. (2007) (eds) Statuen in der Spätantike. Wiesbaden, Reichert Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beard, M. (1987) A complex of times: no more sheep on Romulus' birthday. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 213: 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beard, M., North, J. and Price, S. (1998) Religions of Rome, 2 vols. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bellah, R. (1967) Civil religion in America. Daedalus 96: 1–21.Google Scholar
Berlioz, S. (1997) Il Campus Magnae Matris di Ostia. Cahiers Glotz 8: 97–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bjørnebye, J. (2007) ‘Hic locus est felix, sanctus, piusque benignus’: the Cult of Mithras in Fourth-Century Rome. University of Bergen (Norway), Ph.D. thesis.Google Scholar
Bobou, O. (2012) The Temple of Artemis at Messene: a late antique display case. Paper read at the Annual Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America (5–8 January 2012), Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Boddens Hosang, F. (2010) Establishing Boundaries: Christian-Jewish Relations in Early Council Texts and the Writings of the Church Fathers. Leiden, Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boin, D. (2009) Temples and Traditions in Late Antique Ostia, c. 250–600 C.E. University of Texas at Austin, Ph.D. thesis.Google Scholar
Boin, D. (2010a) A hall for Hercules at Ostia and a farewell to the late antique ‘pagan revival’. American Journal of Archaeology 114: 253–66.Google Scholar
Boin, D. (2010b) Late antique Ostia and a campaign for pious tourism: epitaphs for Bishop Cyriacus and Monica, mother of Augustine. Journal of Roman Studies 100: 195–209.Google Scholar
Boin, D. (2013) Ostia in Late Antiquity. New York, Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowden, H. (2010) Mystery Cults in the Ancient World. London, Thames and Hudson.Google Scholar
Brenk, B. (2001) La christianisation d'Ostie. In Descoeudres, J.-P. (ed.), Ostia: port et porte de la Rome antique: 262–71. Geneva, Musées d'Art et d'Histoire.Google Scholar
Calza, G. (1940) Una basilica di età costantiniana scoperta a Ostia. Rendiconti della Pontificia Accademia di Archeologia 16: 63–88.Google Scholar
Calza, G. (1946) Il santuario della Magna Mater a Ostia. Atti della Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia Serie III. Memorie 6: 183–205.Google Scholar
Calza, R. (1946) Le sculture rinvenute nel santuario della Magna Mater. Atti della Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia Serie III. Memorie 6: 207–27.Google Scholar
Calza-De Chirico, R. (1941) Una nuova statua ritratto del basso impero trovata a Ostia. Bullettino della Commissione Archeologica Comunale di Roma 69: 113–28.Google Scholar
Cameron, A. (2011) The Last Pagans of Rome. New York, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Caseau, B. (2011) Religious intolerance and pagan statuary. In Lavan, L. and Mulryan, M. (eds), The Archaeology of Late Antique ‘Paganism’: 479–502. Leiden, Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chastagnol, A. (1956) Le sénateur Volusien et la conversion d'une famille de l'aristocratie romaine au bas-empire. Revue des Études Anciennes 58: 241–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chastagnol, A. (1960) La préfecture urbaine à Rome sous le bas-empire. Paris, Presses Universitaires de France.Google Scholar
Chenault, R. (2008) Rome without Emperors: the Revival of a Senatorial City in the Fourth Century C.E. University of Michigan, Ph.D. thesis.Google Scholar
Chenault, R. (2012) Statues of senators in the Forum of Trajan and the Roman Forum in late antiquity. Journal of Roman Studies 102: 103–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coates-Stephens, R. (2007) The reuse of ancient statuary in late antique Rome and the end of the statuary habit. In Bauer, F.A. and Witschel, C. (eds), Statuen in der Spätantike: 171–88. Wiesbaden, Reichert.Google Scholar
Cumont, F. (1911) The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism. Chicago, Open Court Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Curran, J. (1994) Moving statues in late antique Rome: problems of perspective. Art History 17: 46–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeLaine, J. (2006) Baths and bathing in late antique Ostia. In Mattusch, C., Donohue, A. and Brauer, A. (eds), Common Ground: Archaeology, Art, Science, and Humanities: 338–43. Oxford, Oxbow Books.Google Scholar
de Rossi, G.B. (1865) Un esplorazione sotterranea sulla via Salaria vecchia. Bullettino di Archeologia Cristiana 3: 1–8.Google Scholar
De Spirito, G. (1999) Xenodochium Valerii. In Steinby, E.M. (ed.), Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae V (T–Z): 217. Rome, Quasar.Google Scholar
Diefenbach, S. (2008) Römische Erinnerungsräume: Heiligenmemoria und Kollektive Identitäten im Roms des 3. bis 5. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. Berlin, Walter de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Duthoy, R. (1969) The Taurobolium: its Evolution and Terminology. Leiden, Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ebbeler, J. (2012) Disciplining Christians: Correction and Community in Augustine's Letters. New York, Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eliav, Y., Friedland, E. and Herbert, S. (2008) The Sculptural Environment of the Roman Near East: Reflection on Culture, Ideology, and Power. Leuven, Peeters.Google Scholar
Elm, S. (2012) Sons of Hellenism, Fathers of the Church: Emperor Julian, Gregory of Nazianus, and the Vision of Rome. Berkeley, University of California Press.Google Scholar
Fear, A. (1996) Cybele and Christ. In Lane, E. (ed.), Cybele, Attis and Related Cults: Essays in Memory of M.J. Vermaseren: 37–50. Leiden, E.J. Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feeney, D. (1998) Literature and Religion at Rome: Cultures, Contexts, and Beliefs. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Frankfurter, D. (1998) Religion in Roman Egypt: Assimilation and Resistance. Princeton, Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geertz, C. (1973) The Interpretation of Cultures. New York, Basic Books.Google Scholar
Gering, A., Kaumanns, L. and Lavan, L. (2011) Das Stadtzentrum von Ostia in der Spätantike: Vorbericht zu den Ausgrabungen 2008–2011. Römische Mitteilungen 117: 409–509.Google Scholar
Goddard, C. (2006) The evolution of pagan sanctuaries in late antique Italy (fourth–sixth centuries A.D.): a new administrative and legal framework. In Ghilardi, M., Goddard, C. and Porena, P. (eds), Les cités de Italie tardo-antique (IVe–VIe siècle): institutions, économie, société, culture et religion: 281–308. Rome, École Française de Rome.Google Scholar
Guidobaldi, F. (1995) Domus Valerii. In Steinby, E.M. (ed.), Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae II (D–G): 207. Rome, Quasar.Google Scholar
Hahn, J. (2008) The conversion of the cult statues: the destruction of the Serapeum 392 A.D. and the transformation of Alexandria into the ‘Christ-loving’ city. In Hahn, J., Emmel, S. and Gotter, U. (eds), From Temple to Church: Destruction and Renewal of Local Cultic Topography in Late Antiquity: 335–65. Leiden, Brill.Google Scholar
Hahn, J., Emmel, S. and Gotter, U. (2008) (eds) From Temple to Church: Destruction and Renewal of Local Cultic Topography in Late Antiquity. Leiden, Brill.Google Scholar
Halbwachs, M. (1984) On Collective Memory, edited and translated by Coser, L.. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Hannestad, N. (1994) Tradition in Late Antique Sculpture: Conservation, Modernization, Production. Aarhus, Aarhus University Press.Google Scholar
Hedrick, C. (2000) History and Silence. Austin, University of Texas Press.Google Scholar
Heinzelmann, M., Bauer, F.A. and Martin, A. (2000) Ostia: ein urbanistiches Forschungsprojekt in den unausgegraben Bereichen des Stadtgebiets (Vorbericht zur zweiten Grabungskampagne 1999). Römische Mitteilungen 107: 373–415.Google Scholar
Heres, T.L. (1982) Paries: a Proposal for a Dating System of Late Antique Masonry Structures in Rome and Ostia A.D. 235–600. Amsterdam, Rodopi.Google Scholar
Jacobs, I. (2010) Production to destruction? Pagan and mythological statuary in Asia Minor. American Journal of Archaeology 114: 267–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalas, G. (2010) Writing and restoration in Rome: inscriptions, statues and the late antique preservation of buildings. In Goodson, C., Lester, A. and Symes, C. (eds), Cities, Texts and Social Networks, 400–1500: 21–43. Burlington, Ashgate.Google Scholar
Kockel, V. and Ortisi, S. (2000) Ostia. Sogenanntes Macellum: Vorbericht über die Ausgrabungen der Universität Augsburg 1997/98. Römische Mitteilungen 107: 351–64.Google Scholar
Knust, J.W. and Varhelyi, Z. (2011) (eds) Ancient Mediterranean Sacrifice. New York, Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kristensen, T.M. (2010) The display of statues in the late antique cities of the eastern Mediterranean: reflections on memory, meaning, and aesthetics. In Sami, D. and Speed, G. (eds), Debating Urbanism Within and Beyond the Walls, A.D. 300–700: 265–88. Leicester, University of Leicester School of Archaeology and Ancient History.Google Scholar
Laird, M. (2000) Reconsidering the so-called ‘Sede degli Augustali’ at Ostia. Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 45: 41–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lançon, B. (2000) Rome in Late Antiquity, translated by Nevill, A.. Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Latham, J. (2007) The Ritual Construction of Rome: Processions, Subjectivities, and the City from the Late Republic to Late Antiquity. University of California, Santa Barbara, Ph.D. thesis.Google Scholar
Latham, J. (2012a) The entanglements of (Roman) texts and (Metroac) artifacts in the cult of Magna Mater at Rome and Ostia. Paper read at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature (16–20 November 2012), Chicago, Illinois.Google Scholar
Latham, J. (2012b) ‘Fabulous clap-trap’: Roman masculinity, the cult of Magna Mater, and literary constructions of the Galli at Rome from the late Republic to late antiquity. Journal of Religion 92: 84–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lavan, L. (2011) Political talismans? Residual ‘pagan’ statues in late antique public space. In Lavan, L. and Mulryan, M. (eds), The Archaeology of Late Antique ‘Paganism’: 439–77. Leiden, Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lenzi, P. (1998) ‘Sita in loco qui vocatur calcaria’: attività di spoliazione e forni da calca à Ostia. Archeologia Medievale 25: 247–63.Google Scholar
Lepelley, C. (1994) Le musée des statues divines: la volonté de sauvegarder le patrimoine artistique païen à l'époque théodosienne. Cahiers Archéologiques 42: 5–15.Google Scholar
Liverani, P. (2001) Vaticano pagano, Vatican cristiano. In Ensoli, S. and La Rocca, E. (eds), Aurea Roma: dalla città pagana alla città cristiana: 295–7. Rome, ‘L'Erma’ di Bretschneider.Google Scholar
Machado, C. (2009) Religion as antiquarianism: pagan dedications in late antique Rome. In Bodel, J. and Kajava, M. (eds), Dediche sacre nel mondo greco-romano: 331–54. Rome, Institutum Romanum Finlandiae.Google Scholar
Mar, R., Nolla, J., de Arbulo, J.R. and Vivó, D. (1999) Sanctuarios y urbanismo en Ostia: la excavación en el campo de Cibeles. Mededelingen van het Nederlands Historisch Instituut te Rome 58: 20–2.Google Scholar
Marini, F., Pacchiani, D. and Panico, F. (2001) Les fouilles pontificales du XIXe siècle jusqu'à Rodolfo Lanciani. In Descoeudres, J.-P. (ed.), Ostia: port et porte de la Rome antique: 48–55. Geneva, Musées d'Art et d'Histoire.Google Scholar
Martin, A. (2008) Imports at Ostia in the Imperial period and late antiquity: evidence from the DAI–AAR excavations. In Hohlfelder, R. (ed.), The Maritime World of Ancient Rome: 105–18. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Matthews, J. (1967) Continuity in a Roman family: the Rufii Festi of Volsinii. Historia 16: 484–509.Google Scholar
McLynn, N. (1996) The fourth-century taurobolium. Phoenix 50: 312–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meiggs, R. (1973) Roman Ostia, second edition. Oxford, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Merrifield, R. (1977) Art and religion in Roman London. In Munby, J. and Henig, M. (eds), Roman Life and Art in Britain, 2 vols. Oxford, British Archaeological Reports.Google Scholar
Nasrallah, L. (2010) Christian Responses to Roman Art and Architecture. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nongbri, B. (2008) Dislodging ‘embedded’ religion: a brief note on a scholarly trope. Numen 55: 440–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nora, P. (1996) Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past, translated by Kritzman, L.. New York, Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
North, J. (2000) Roman Religion. Oxford, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Olivanti, P. (2001) Les fouilles d'Ostie de Vaglieri à nos jours. In Descoeudres, J.P. (ed.), Ostia: port et porte de la Rome antique: 56–65. Geneva, Musées d'Art et d'Histoire.Google Scholar
Paroli, L. (1993) Ostia nella tarda antichità e nell'alto medioevo. In Paroli, L. and Delogu, P. (eds), La storia economica di Roma nell'alto medioevo alla luce dei recenti scavi archeologici: 153–75. Florence, Edizioni all'Insegna del Giglio.Google Scholar
Pellegrino, A. (1987) Note su alcune iscrizioni del campo della Magna Mater ad Ostia. Miscellanea Greca e Romana 12: 183–200.Google Scholar
Poccardi, G. (2006) Les bains de la ville d'Ostie à l'epoque tardo-antique (fin IIIe–debut VIe siècle). In Ghilardi, M., Goddard, C. and Porena, P. (eds), Les cités de l'Italie tardo antique (IVe–VIe siècle): 167–76. Rome, École Française de Rome.Google Scholar
Rieger, K. (2004) Heiligtümer in Ostia (Studien zur Antiken Stadt 8). Munich, Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil.Google Scholar
Rieger, K. (2007) Lokale Tradition versus überregionale Einheit: der Kult der Magna Mater. Mediterranea 4: 89–120.Google Scholar
Saastamoinen, A. (2010) The Phraseology of Latin Building Inscriptions in Roman North Africa. Helsinki, Finnish Society of Sciences and Letters.Google Scholar
Salzman, M. (1990) On Roman Time: the Codex–Calendar of 354 and the Rhythms of Urban Life in Late Antiquity. Berkeley, University of California Press.Google Scholar
Salzman, M. (2002) The Making of a Christian Aristocracy. Cambridge (MA), Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salzman, M. (2008) Pagans and Christians. In Harvey, S.A. and Hunter, D. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Studies: 186–202. Oxford, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Salzman, M. (2010) Ambrose and the usurpation of Arbogastes and Eugenius: reflections on pagan–Christian conflict narratives. Journal of Early Christian Studies 18: 191–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandwell, I. (2007) Religious Identity in Late Antiquity: Greeks, Jews and Christians in Antioch. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Saradi-Mendelovici, H. (1990) Christian attitudes toward pagan monuments in late antiquity and their legacy in later Byzantine centuries. Dumbarton Oaks Papers 44: 47–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sauer, E. (2003) The Archaeology of Religious Hatred in the Roman and Early Medieval World. Charleston, Tempus.Google Scholar
Spurza, J. (2011) Architectural reuse and the afterlife of mosaics at later Ostia: excavation of the Palazzo Imperiale. Paper read at the Annual Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America (7–9 January 2011), San Antonio, Texas.Google Scholar
Squarciapino, M. (1962) I culti orientali ad Ostia. Leiden, Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steuernagel, D. (2004) Kult und Alltag in Römischen Hafenstädten. Soziale Prozesse in Archäologischer Perspektive. Stuttgart, Frank Steiner Verlag.Google Scholar
Stewart, P. (1999) The destruction of statues in late antiquity. In Miles, R. (ed.), Constructing Identities in Late Antiquity: 159–89. London, Routledge.Google Scholar
Stewart, P. (2003) Statues in Roman Society. New York, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Stirling, L. (2005) The Learned Collector: Mythological Statuettes and Classical Taste in Late Antique Gaul. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stroumsa, G. (2009) The End of Sacrifice: Religious Transformations in Late Antiquity, translated by Emanuel, S.. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Taylor, L.R. (1912) The Cults of Ostia. Bryn Mawr, Bryn Mawr College.Google Scholar
Thomas, E. and Witschel, C. (1992) Constructing reconstruction: claim and reality of Roman rebuilding inscriptions from the Latin west. Papers of the British School at Rome 60: 135–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torelli, M. (2000) Etruscan religion. In Torelli, M. (ed.), The Etruscans: 273–90. Milan, Bompiani.Google Scholar
Trombley, F. (1993) Hellenic Religion and Christianization, c. 370–529, 2 vols. Leiden, E.J. Brill.Google Scholar
Ullucci, D. (2012) The Christian Rejection of Animal Sacrifice. New York, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Valeri, C. (2002) Arredi scultorei dagli edifici termali di Ostia. Acta Instituti Romani Finlandiae 27: 213–28.Google Scholar
Van Dam, R. (2011) Remembering Constantine at the Milvian Bridge. New York, Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vermaseren, M.J. (1977) Cybele and Attis: the Myth and the Cult. London, Thames and Hudson.Google Scholar
Visconti, C.L. (1868) I monumenti del Metroon Ostiense. Annali dell'Istituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica 40: 362–413.Google Scholar
Visconti, C.L. (1869) I monumenti del Metroon Ostiense. Annali dell'Istituto di Corrispendenza Archeologica 41: 208–45.Google Scholar
Weisweiler, J. (2012) From equality to asymmetry: honorific statues, imperial power, and senatorial identity in late-antique Rome. Journal of Roman Archaeology 25: 319–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, L.M. (2010) Scripting Jesus: the Gospels in Rewrite. San Francisco, HarperCollins.Google Scholar
White, L.M., Gelb, S. and Boin, D. (2012) Sinagoga: scheda di scavo 2009. Fasti Online. http://www.fastionline.org/record_view.php?fst_cd=AIAC_2521 (last consulted 9 June 2013).Google Scholar
White, L.M., Gelb, S., Boin, D. and Nongbri, B. (2011a) Sinagoga: scheda di scavo 2004. Fasti Online. http://www.fastionline.org/record_view.php?fst_cd=AIAC_2521 (last consulted 9 June 2013).Google Scholar
White, L.M., Gelb, S., Boin, D. and Nongbri, B. (2011b) Sinagoga: scheda di scavo 2008. Fasti Online. http://www.fastionline.org/record_view.php?fst_cd=AIAC_2521 (last consulted 9 June 2013).Google Scholar
Wilkinson, K. (2009) Palladas and the age of Constantine. Journal of Roman Studies 99: 36–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar