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MORE THAN MISTRESSES, LESS THAN WIVES: THE ROLE OF ROMAN CONCUBINAE IN LIGHT OF THEIR FUNERARY MONUMENTS
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 19 May 2020
Abstract
This article focuses on the role of concubinae in the Roman world, through analysis of inscriptions and reliefs on funerary monuments involving these women and their relatives. It investigates why concubinatus was chosen in preference to legal marriage, and how the concubina was perceived as a member of her partner's family. The results bring to light how this type of quasi-marital union was an appealing option for men of social standing, and that the role of concubinae accepted by their partners was not so dissimilar to that of legal wives. The article considers funerary monuments from Roman Italy, dating from the first century BC to the early third century AD. It deals with the role of Roman concubinae by analysing tombstones from both an archaeological and historical point of view; the aim of this analysis is to reconstruct a social pattern of concubinatus and of the individuals involved in this type of quasi-marital relationship, with the aid of two different types of ancient sources.
Attraverso l'analisi delle iscrizioni e delle immagini sui monumenti funerari, l'articolo affronta alcuni temi inerenti al concubinato in epoca romana: da un lato le possibili ragioni che portavano due persone a scegliere tale tipo di unione, dall'altro le modalità con cui veniva percepito il ruolo della concubina nella famiglia del compagno. Nel complesso, i monumenti funerari suggeriscono che questo tipo di legame era una scelta prediletta da uomini socialmente in vista o fieri dei propri successi personali, e che il rapporto instaurato con le concubine non differiva eccessivamente da quello che si intratteneva con le mogli, almeno nella commemorazione funebre. L'analisi si basa sui monumenti provenienti dalla penisola italiana, compresi tra il I sec. a.C. e il III secolo d.C., nella loro dimensione storico-archeologica: il contesto sociale del concubinato e delle persone coinvolte è infatti delineato dai monumenti funerari attraverso l'integrazione di entrambi i tipi di fonti, epigrafiche ed iconografiche.
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References
REFERENCES
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Buonopane, A. (2013) Le raffigurazioni di utensili nelle iscrizioni funerarie: da immagini parlanti a simbolo. Sylloge Epigraphica Barcinonesis 11: 73–82.Google Scholar
Campbell, B. (1978) The marriage of soldiers under the Empire. Journal of Roman Studies 68: 153–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, M. (2018) Infancy and Earliest Childhood in the Roman World. ‘A Fragment of Time’. Oxford, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cristaldi, S.A. (2014) Unioni non matrimoniali a Roma. In Romeo, F. (ed.), Le relazioni affettive non matrimoniali: 143–200. Assago, UTET.Google Scholar
D'Ambra, E. (1995) Mourning and the making of ancestors in the Testamentum Relief. American Journal of Archaeology 99: 667–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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Huttunen, P. (1974) The Social Strata of the Imperial City of Rome. A Quantitative Study of the Social Representation in the Epitaphs Published in the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Volumen VI. Oulu, University of Oulu.Google Scholar
Joshel, S.R. (1992) Work, Identity, and Legal Status at Rome. A Study of the Occupational Inscriptions. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Kampen, N.B. (1982) Social status and gender in Roman art: the case of the saleswoman. In Broude, N. and Garrard, M.D. (eds), Feminism and Art History: Questioning the Litany: 63–77. Oxford, Harper & Row.Google Scholar
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Laes, C. (2003) Desperately different? Delicia children in the Roman household. In Balch, D. and Osiek, C. (eds), Early Christian Families in Context. An Interdisciplinary Dialogue: 298–326. Grand Rapids (MI), W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.Google Scholar
Larsson-Lovén, L. (2010). Coniugal concordia: marriage and marital ideals on Roman funerary monuments. In Larsson Lovén, L. and Strömberg, A. (eds), Ancient Marriage in Myth and Reality : 204–20. Cambridge, Cambridge Scholars.Google Scholar
Lissi Caronna, E. and Moretti, G. (1970) Roma — Resti di sepolcri e di alcune strutture romane nel parco della villa Doria-Pamphili al Gianicolo. Notizie degli scavi di antichità 1970: 345–61.Google Scholar
Magnani, S., Banchig, P. and Ventura, P. (2005) Il ponte romano alla Mainizza e la via Aquileia-Emona. Aquileia Nostra 76: 81–136.Google Scholar
Mancini, G. (1914) Roma. Nuove scoperte in città e nel suburbio. Notizie degli scavi di antichità 1914: 376–99.Google Scholar
Mander, J. (2013) Portraits of Children on Roman Funerary Monuments. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Martin, D.B. (1996) The construction of the ancient family: methodological consideration. Journal of Roman Studies 86: 40–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayer, E. (2012) The Ancient Middle Classes. Urban Life and Aesthetics in the Roman Empire, 100 BCE–250 CE. Cambridge (MA), Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGinn, T.A.J. (1991) Concubinage and the Lex Iulia on adultery. Transactions of the American Philological Association 121: 335–75.Google Scholar
McGinn, T.A.J. (2002) The Augustan marriage legislation and social practice: elite endogamy versus male “marrying down”. In Aubert, J.J. and Sirks, B. (eds), Speculum Iuris: Roman Law as a Reflection of Social and Economic Life in Antiquity: 46–93. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Menozzi, O. (1995) Una stele funeraria decorata rinvenuta ad Atri. Quaderni dell'Istituto di Archeologia e Storia Antica, Università di Chieti 5: 169–84.Google Scholar
Mouritsen, H. (2011) The Freedman in the Roman World. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nowak, M. (2014) The hereditary rights of the extramarital children in light of the law of papyri. In Casey, B. and Huebner, S.R. (eds), Inheritance, Law and Religion in the Ancient and Mediaeval Worlds: 11–24. Paris, Peeters.Google Scholar
Perry, M.J. (2014) Gender, Manumission, and the Roman Freedwoman. New York, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pflug, H. (1989) Römische Porträtstelen in Oberitalien: Untersuchungen zur Chronologie, Typologie und Ikonographie. Mainz, Zabern.Google Scholar
Phang, S.E. (2001) The Marriage of Roman Soldiers (13 B.C.–A.D. 235): Law and Family in the Imperial Army. Leiden, Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rawson, B. (1974) Roman concubinage and other “de facto” marriages. Transactions of the American Philological Association 104: 279–305.Google Scholar
Rinaldi Tufi, S. (1987) Stele di un navigatore dalmata. In Studi per Laura Breglia III. Archeologia e storia: 97–100. Rome, Istituto poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato.Google Scholar
Saller, R.P. (1984) Familia, domus, and the Roman conception of the family. Phoenix 38: 336–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sampaolo, V. (1981) Gli oggetti. In Pompei 1748–1980. I tempi della documentazione: 201–7. Rome, Multigrafica.Google Scholar
Scalco, L. (2016) Donne di casa: ritratti di liberte e patroni sui monumenti funerari romani. Anales de Arqueología Cordobesa 27: 215–38.Google Scholar
Schumacher, L. (2007) Archäologische Zeugnisse zum römischen Sklavenrecht: servi togati und SC Clavdianvm. In Mayer i Olivé, M., Baratta, G. and Guzmán, A., Provinciae Imperii Romani inscriptionibus descriptae : Barcelona, 3–8 septembris 2002 II: 1331–6. Barcelona, Institut d'Estudis Catalans.Google Scholar
Starac, A. (2006) Reliefni prikazi na rimskimnadgrobnim spomenicima. Depictions in Relief on Roman Funerary Monuments at the Archaeological Museum of Istria at Pula. Pula.Google Scholar
Stout, A.M. (2001) Jewelry as a symbol of status in the Roman Empire. In Bonfante, L. and Sebesta, J.L. (eds), The World of Roman Costume (second edition): 77–100. Madison, University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Strong, A.K. (2016) Prostitutes and Matrons in the Roman World. New York, Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tramunto, M. (2009) Concubini e concubine nell'Italia romana. Fabriano, Fabriano Edizioni.Google Scholar
Treggiari, S. (1981a) Concubinae. Papers of the British School at Rome 49: 59–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treggiari, S. (1981c) Women with two living husbands in CIL 6. Liverpool Classical Monthly 6: 269–72.Google Scholar
Treggiari, S. (1991) Roman Marriage: ‘Iusti Coniuges’ from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian. Oxford, Clarendon Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Väänänen, V. (1973) Le iscrizioni della necropoli dell'Autoparco Vaticano. Rome, Aziende Tipografiche Eredi dott. G. Bardi.Google Scholar
Von Hesberg, H. (2005) Il recinto nelle necropoli di Roma in età repubblicana: origine e diffusione. In Marrone, G. Cresci (ed.), Terminavit sepulcrum: i recinti funerari delle necropoli di Altino: Atti del convegno, Venezia, 3–4 dicembre 2003: 59–77. Rome, Quasar.Google Scholar
Von Hesberg-Tonn, B. (1983) Coniunx carissima. Untersuchungen zum Normcharakter im Erscheinungsbild der römischen Frau. Stuttgart, Historisches Institut der Universitat Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Weiler, I. (2003) Die Beendigung des Sklavenstatus im Altertum. Ein Beitrag zur vergleichenden Sozialgeschichte. Stuttgart, Steiner.Google Scholar
Weiss, A. (2004) Sklave der Stadt. Untersuchungen zur öffentlichen Sklaverei in den Städten des römischen Reiches. Stuttgart, Steiner.Google Scholar
AE L'Anne´e e´pigraphiqueGoogle Scholar
CIL Corpus Inscriptionum LatinarumGoogle Scholar
EDR Epigraphic Database Roma (http://www.edr-edr.it/)Google Scholar
RIGI Rivista Indo-Greco-Italica di Filologia, Lingua, AntichitàGoogle Scholar
Berti, F. (2006) Le stele dei Fadieni. In Berti, F. (ed.), Mors inmatura. I Fadieni e il loro sepolcreto (Quaderni di Archeologia dell'Emilia Romagna 16): 9–19.Google Scholar
Bonfante, L. (1989) Nudity as a costume in Classical art. American Journal of Archaeology 93: 543–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borbonus, D. (2014) Columbarium Tombs and Collective Identity in Augustan Rome. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandizzi Vitucci, P. (1981) La collezione archeologica del Casale di Roma Vecchia. Rome, Comitato per l'archeologia laziale.Google Scholar
Buonocore, M. (1984) Varia epigraphica abruzzesi. In Miscellanea greca e romana 9. Rome: 227–72.Google Scholar
Buonopane, A. (2013) Le raffigurazioni di utensili nelle iscrizioni funerarie: da immagini parlanti a simbolo. Sylloge Epigraphica Barcinonesis 11: 73–82.Google Scholar
Campbell, B. (1978) The marriage of soldiers under the Empire. Journal of Roman Studies 68: 153–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carroll, M. (2018) Infancy and Earliest Childhood in the Roman World. ‘A Fragment of Time’. Oxford, Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cristaldi, S.A. (2014) Unioni non matrimoniali a Roma. In Romeo, F. (ed.), Le relazioni affettive non matrimoniali: 143–200. Assago, UTET.Google Scholar
D'Ambra, E. (1995) Mourning and the making of ancestors in the Testamentum Relief. American Journal of Archaeology 99: 667–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
D'Ambrosio, A. and De Caro, E. (1983) Un impegno per Pompei. Fotopiano e documentazione della necropoli di Porta Nocera. Milan, Touring Club Italiano.Google Scholar
Davies, G. (1985) The significance of the handshake motif in Classical funerary art. American Journal of Archaeology 89: 627–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Benedittis, G. (1995) Bovianum Molise. Repertorio delle iscrizioni latine 1. Campobasso, Lampo.Google Scholar
De Marinis, G. (2005) (ed.) Arte romana nei musei delle Marche. Rome, Libreria dello Stato.Google Scholar
Di Filippo Balestrazzi, E. (2012) Sculture romane del Museo Nazionale Concordiese di Portogruaro. Rome, Giorgio Bretschneider.Google Scholar
Di Giacomo, G. (2010) Ancora sul corredo epigrafico dei sepolcri repubblicani di Via Statilia. Roma. Una città, un impero 1: 4–29.Google Scholar
Diebner, S. (1991) Testimonianze di arte funeraria: il Sannio nel contesto delle altre regioni dell'Italia centrale. In La Romanisation du Samnium aux IIe et Ier siècles av. J-C: 230–43. Naples, Centre Jean Bérard.Google Scholar
Dixon, S. (1992) The Roman Family. Baltimore (MD), Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eder, W. (1980) Servitus Publica. Untersuchungen zur Entstehung, Entwicklung und Funktion der öffentlichen Sklaverei in Rom. Wiesbaden, F. Steiner.Google Scholar
Evans-Grubbs, J. (2002) Women and the Law in the Roman Empire. A Sourcebook on Marriage, Divorce and Widowhood. London, Routledge.Google Scholar
Fayer, C. (1994) La familia romana. Aspetti giuridici e antiquari I. Rome, “L'Erma” di Bretschneider.Google Scholar
Fayer, C. (2005) La familia romana. Aspetti giuridici e antiquari III. Concubinato, Divorzio, Adulterio. Rome, “L'Erma” di Bretschneider.Google Scholar
Friedl, R. (1996) Der Konkubinat im kaiserzeitlichen Rom von Augustus bis Septimius Severus. Stuttgart, Steiner.Google Scholar
George, M. (2005) Family imagery and family values in Roman Italy. In George, M. (ed.), The Roman Family in the Empire. Rome, Italy, and Beyond: 37–66. Oxford, Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hasegawa, K. (2005) The Familia Urbana during the Early Empire. A Study of Columbaria Inscriptions. Oxford, Archaeopress.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heinzelmann, M. (2001) Grabarchitektur, Bestattungsbrauch und Sozialstruktur: Zur Rolle der familia. In Heinzelmann, M., Ortalli, J., Fasold, P. and Witteyer, M. (eds), Römischer Bestattungsbrauch und Beigaben-sitte in Rom, Norditalien und den Nordwestprovinzen von der späten Republik bis in die Kaiserzeit: 179–91. Wiesbaden, L. Reichert.Google Scholar
Hersch, K. (2010) The Roman Wedding: Ritual and Meaning in Antiquity. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huttunen, P. (1974) The Social Strata of the Imperial City of Rome. A Quantitative Study of the Social Representation in the Epitaphs Published in the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum Volumen VI. Oulu, University of Oulu.Google Scholar
Joshel, S.R. (1992) Work, Identity, and Legal Status at Rome. A Study of the Occupational Inscriptions. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Kampen, N.B. (1982) Social status and gender in Roman art: the case of the saleswoman. In Broude, N. and Garrard, M.D. (eds), Feminism and Art History: Questioning the Litany: 63–77. Oxford, Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Kleiner, D.E.E. and Matheson, S. (1996) (eds) I Claudia: Women in Ancient Rome I. Austin (TX), Yale University Art Gallery.Google Scholar
Kleiner, D.E.E. and Matheson, S. (2000) (eds) I Claudia: Women in Ancient Rome II. Austin (TX), Yale University Art Gallery.Google Scholar
Laes, C. (2003) Desperately different? Delicia children in the Roman household. In Balch, D. and Osiek, C. (eds), Early Christian Families in Context. An Interdisciplinary Dialogue: 298–326. Grand Rapids (MI), W.B. Eerdmans Pub. Co.Google Scholar
Larsson-Lovén, L. (2010). Coniugal concordia: marriage and marital ideals on Roman funerary monuments. In Larsson Lovén, L. and Strömberg, A. (eds), Ancient Marriage in Myth and Reality : 204–20. Cambridge, Cambridge Scholars.Google Scholar
Lissi Caronna, E. and Moretti, G. (1970) Roma — Resti di sepolcri e di alcune strutture romane nel parco della villa Doria-Pamphili al Gianicolo. Notizie degli scavi di antichità 1970: 345–61.Google Scholar
Magnani, S., Banchig, P. and Ventura, P. (2005) Il ponte romano alla Mainizza e la via Aquileia-Emona. Aquileia Nostra 76: 81–136.Google Scholar
Mancini, G. (1914) Roma. Nuove scoperte in città e nel suburbio. Notizie degli scavi di antichità 1914: 376–99.Google Scholar
Mander, J. (2013) Portraits of Children on Roman Funerary Monuments. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Martin, D.B. (1996) The construction of the ancient family: methodological consideration. Journal of Roman Studies 86: 40–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayer, E. (2012) The Ancient Middle Classes. Urban Life and Aesthetics in the Roman Empire, 100 BCE–250 CE. Cambridge (MA), Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGinn, T.A.J. (1991) Concubinage and the Lex Iulia on adultery. Transactions of the American Philological Association 121: 335–75.Google Scholar
McGinn, T.A.J. (2002) The Augustan marriage legislation and social practice: elite endogamy versus male “marrying down”. In Aubert, J.J. and Sirks, B. (eds), Speculum Iuris: Roman Law as a Reflection of Social and Economic Life in Antiquity: 46–93. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Menozzi, O. (1995) Una stele funeraria decorata rinvenuta ad Atri. Quaderni dell'Istituto di Archeologia e Storia Antica, Università di Chieti 5: 169–84.Google Scholar
Mouritsen, H. (2011) The Freedman in the Roman World. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nowak, M. (2014) The hereditary rights of the extramarital children in light of the law of papyri. In Casey, B. and Huebner, S.R. (eds), Inheritance, Law and Religion in the Ancient and Mediaeval Worlds: 11–24. Paris, Peeters.Google Scholar
Perry, M.J. (2014) Gender, Manumission, and the Roman Freedwoman. New York, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Pflug, H. (1989) Römische Porträtstelen in Oberitalien: Untersuchungen zur Chronologie, Typologie und Ikonographie. Mainz, Zabern.Google Scholar
Phang, S.E. (2001) The Marriage of Roman Soldiers (13 B.C.–A.D. 235): Law and Family in the Imperial Army. Leiden, Brill.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rawson, B. (1974) Roman concubinage and other “de facto” marriages. Transactions of the American Philological Association 104: 279–305.Google Scholar
Rinaldi Tufi, S. (1987) Stele di un navigatore dalmata. In Studi per Laura Breglia III. Archeologia e storia: 97–100. Rome, Istituto poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato.Google Scholar
Saller, R.P. (1984) Familia, domus, and the Roman conception of the family. Phoenix 38: 336–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sampaolo, V. (1981) Gli oggetti. In Pompei 1748–1980. I tempi della documentazione: 201–7. Rome, Multigrafica.Google Scholar
Scalco, L. (2016) Donne di casa: ritratti di liberte e patroni sui monumenti funerari romani. Anales de Arqueología Cordobesa 27: 215–38.Google Scholar
Schumacher, L. (2007) Archäologische Zeugnisse zum römischen Sklavenrecht: servi togati und SC Clavdianvm. In Mayer i Olivé, M., Baratta, G. and Guzmán, A., Provinciae Imperii Romani inscriptionibus descriptae : Barcelona, 3–8 septembris 2002 II: 1331–6. Barcelona, Institut d'Estudis Catalans.Google Scholar
Starac, A. (2006) Reliefni prikazi na rimskimnadgrobnim spomenicima. Depictions in Relief on Roman Funerary Monuments at the Archaeological Museum of Istria at Pula. Pula.Google Scholar
Stout, A.M. (2001) Jewelry as a symbol of status in the Roman Empire. In Bonfante, L. and Sebesta, J.L. (eds), The World of Roman Costume (second edition): 77–100. Madison, University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Strong, A.K. (2016) Prostitutes and Matrons in the Roman World. New York, Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tramunto, M. (2009) Concubini e concubine nell'Italia romana. Fabriano, Fabriano Edizioni.Google Scholar
Treggiari, S. (1981a) Concubinae. Papers of the British School at Rome 49: 59–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treggiari, S. (1981c) Women with two living husbands in CIL 6. Liverpool Classical Monthly 6: 269–72.Google Scholar
Treggiari, S. (1991) Roman Marriage: ‘Iusti Coniuges’ from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian. Oxford, Clarendon Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Väänänen, V. (1973) Le iscrizioni della necropoli dell'Autoparco Vaticano. Rome, Aziende Tipografiche Eredi dott. G. Bardi.Google Scholar
Von Hesberg, H. (2005) Il recinto nelle necropoli di Roma in età repubblicana: origine e diffusione. In Marrone, G. Cresci (ed.), Terminavit sepulcrum: i recinti funerari delle necropoli di Altino: Atti del convegno, Venezia, 3–4 dicembre 2003: 59–77. Rome, Quasar.Google Scholar
Von Hesberg-Tonn, B. (1983) Coniunx carissima. Untersuchungen zum Normcharakter im Erscheinungsbild der römischen Frau. Stuttgart, Historisches Institut der Universitat Stuttgart.Google Scholar
Weiler, I. (2003) Die Beendigung des Sklavenstatus im Altertum. Ein Beitrag zur vergleichenden Sozialgeschichte. Stuttgart, Steiner.Google Scholar
Weiss, A. (2004) Sklave der Stadt. Untersuchungen zur öffentlichen Sklaverei in den Städten des römischen Reiches. Stuttgart, Steiner.Google Scholar