Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-s2hrs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T18:54:36.875Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Immunomodulatory agents in the laboratory and clinic

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 April 2009

A. K. Nüssler  and
A. W. Thomson
A. K. Nüssler
Affiliation:
Departments of Surgery and Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
A. W. Thomson
Affiliation:
Departments of Surgery and Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

This paper reviews naturally occurring and synthetic compounds that either enhance immune defences or lower both natural and acquired immunity. Immunomodulatory agents used both for laboratory study and clinically for the management of immunologically based diseases are considered

Keywords

adjuvantscytokinesimmunosuppressive drugsmonoclonal antibodies
Type
Research Article
Information
Parasitology , Volume 105 , Issue S1: Chemotherapy and the immune system , January 1992 , pp. S5 - S23
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1992

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Abbas, A. K., Lichtman, A. H. & Pober, J. S. (1991). Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Philadelphia, London: W.B. Saunders Co.Google Scholar
Akira, S., Hirano, T., Taga, T. & Hishimoto, T. (1990). Biology of multifunctional cytokines: IL-6 and related molecules (IL-1 and TNF). FASEB Journal 4, 2867–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aldovani, A. & Young, R. A. (1991). Humoral and cell-mediated immune response to live recombinant BCG-HIV vaccines. Nature 351, 479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allison, A. C., Almquist, S. J., Muller, C. D. & Eugui, E. M. (1991). In vitro immunosuppressive effects of mycophenolic acid and an ester pro-drug, RS-61443. Transplantation Proceedings 23, (Suppl. 2yes) 10–14.Google Scholar
Allison, A. C. & Byars, N. E. (1986). An adjuvant formulation that selectively elicits the formation of antibodies of protective isotypes and of cell-mediated immunity. Journal of Immunological Methods 95, 157–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alving, C. R., Richards, R. L., Mayre, M. D., Hockmeyer, W. T. & Wirtz, R. A. (1990). Liposomes as carriers of vaccines: Development of a liposomal malaria vaccine. In Immunological Adjuvants and Vaccines, (ed. Gregoriadis, G., Allison, A. C. & Poste, G.), pp. 123–131. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Amemiya, H., Dohi, K., Otsubo, O., Endo, T., Negano, S., Ishibashi, M., Hirano, T., Sato, K., Kurita, T. & Fukao, K. (1991). Markedly enhanced therapeutic effect of deoxyspergualin on acute rejection when combined with methyprednisolone in kidney recipients. Transplantation Proceedings 23, 1087–9.Google Scholar
Amemiya, H., Suzuki, S., Niiya, S., Watanabe, H. & Kotake, T. (1988). Synergistic effect of cyclosporine and mizoribine on survival of dog renal allografts. Transplantation 46, 768–71.Google ScholarPubMed
Arya, S. K., Wong-Staal, F. & Gallo, R. C. (1984). Dexamethasone-mediated inhibition of human T cell growth factor and gamma interferon messenger RNA. Journal of Immunology 133, 273–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baccarini, M., Schwinzer, R. & Lohmann-Matthew, M. L. (1989). Effect of human recombinant IL-2 on murine macrophage precursors. Involvement of a receptor distinct from the p55 (Tac) protein. Journal of Immunology 142, 118–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Banchereau, J. (1991). Interleukin-4. In The Cytokine Handbook, (ed. Thomson, A. W.), pp. 119–48. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Bartlett, R. R. (1988). Cyclophosphamide. In The Pharmacology of Lymphocytes (ed. Bray, M. A. & Morley, J.), pp. 453–69. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baskar, P., Silberstein, D. S. & Pincus, S. H. (1990). Inhibition of IgG-triggered human eosinophil function by IL-4. Journal of Immunology 144, 2321–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Behrens, T. W. & Goodwin, J. S. (1988). Glucocorticosteroids. In The Pharmacology of Lymphocytes, (ed. Bray, M. A. & Morley, J.), pp. 427–39. Berlin: Springer Verlag.Google Scholar
Belosevic, M., Finbloom, D. S., Van Der Meide, P. H., Slayter, M. V. & Nacy, C. A. (1989) Administration of monoclonal anti-IFN-γ antibodies in vivo abrogates natural resistance of C3H/HeN mice to infection with Leishmania major. Journal of Immunology 143, 266–74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beutler, B. (1992). Tumor Necrosis Factor: The Molecules and Their Emerging Role in Medicine. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
Bierer, B. E., Schreiber, S. L. & Burakoff, S. J. (1991). The effect of the immunosuppressant FK 506 on alternate pathways of T cell activation. European Journal of Immunology 21, 439–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Billiar, T. R., Curran, R. D., Stuehr, D. J., West, M. A., Bentz, B. G. & Simmons, R. L. (1989). An L-arginine dependent mechanism mediates Kupffer cell influences on hepatocyte protein synthesis in vitro. Journal of Experimental Medicine 169, 1467.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boey, H., Rosenbaum, R., Castracane, J. & Borish, L. (1989). Interleukin-4 is a neutrophil activator. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 83, 978–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borel, J. F. (1989). Pharmacology of Cyclosporine (Sandimmune) IV. Pharmacological properties in vivo. Pharmacological Reviews 41, 259–371.Google Scholar
Borel, J. F. (1986). Ciclosporin. In Progress in Allergy Vol. 38 (ed. Borel, J. F.), Karger: Basel.Google Scholar
Bout, D., Joseph, M., Pontet, M., Vorng, H., Deslee, D. & Capron, A. (1986). Rat resistance to schistosomiasis: platelet-mediated cytotoxicity induced by C-reactive protein. Science 231, 153–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carter, K. C., Gallagher, G., Baillie, A. J. & Alexander, J. (1989). The induction of protective immunity to Leishmania major in the BALB/c mouse by interleukin-4 treatment. European Journal of Immunology 19, 779–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chan, W. L., Ziltener, H. J. & Liew, F. Y. (1990). Interleukin-3 protects mice from acute herpes simplex virus infection. Immunology 71, 358–63.Google ScholarPubMed
Chedid, L., Parant, M., Audibert, F., Riveau, G., Parant, F., Lederer, E., Choay, J. & Lefrancier, P. (1982). Biological activity of a new synthetic muramyl peptide adjuvant devoid of pyrogenicity. Infection and Immunity 35, 417–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, T., Lapierre, L. A., Fiers, W. & Strominger, J. L. (1986). Recombinant human tumor necrosis factor increases mRNA levels and surface expression of HLA-A, B antigens in vascular endothelial cells and dermal fibroblasts in vitro. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 83, 446–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cosimi, A. B., Conti, D., Delmonico, F. L., Preffer, F. I., Wee, S. I., Rothlein, R., Faanes, R. & Colvin, R. B. (1990) In vivo effects of monoclonal antibody to ICAM-1 (CD54) in non human primates with renal allografts. Journal of Immunology 144, 4604–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coulombe, M., Hao, L., Calcinaro, F., Gill, R. G., Eugui, E. M., Allison, A. C. & Lafferty, K. J. (1991). Tolerance induction in adult animals: comparison of RS-61443 and anti-CD4 treatment. Transplantation Proceedings 23, (Suppl. 2yes) 31–2.Google ScholarPubMed
Cramer, D. V., Chapman, F. A., Jaffee, B. D., Jones, E. A., Knoop, M., Hreha-Eiras, G. & Makowka, L. (1992). The effect of a new immunosuppressive drug, brequinar sodium, on heart, liver, and kidney allograft rejection in the rat. Transplantation 53, 303–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cupps, T. R., Gerrard, T. L., Falkoff, R. J. M., Whalen, G. & Fauci, A. S. (1985). Effects of in vitro corticosteroids on B cell activation, proliferation and differentiation. Journal of Clinical Investigation 75, 754–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dalsgaard, K. (1978). A study of the isolation and characterization of the saponin Quil A. Evaluation of its adjuvant activity with a special reference to the application in the vaccination of cattle against foot-and-mouth disease. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica (Suppl.yes) 69, 1–15.Google Scholar
Davila, D. R., Edwards, C. K. III, Arkins, S., Simon, J. & Kelley, K. W. (1990). Interferon-gamma-induced primering for secretion of superoxide anion and tumour necrosis factor-alpha declines in macrophages from aged rats. FASEB Journal 4, 2906–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Paulis, A., Cirillo, R., Ciccarelli, A., Condonelli, M. & Marone, G. (1991). FK 506, a potent novel inhibitor of the release of proinflammatory mediators from human Fc epsilon RI+ cells. Journal of Immunology 146, 2374–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Desowitz, R. S. (1975). Plasmodium berghei: Immunogenic enhancement of antigen by adjuvant addition. Experimental Parasitology 38, 6–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Padova, F. E. (1989). Pharmacology of cyclosporine. V. Pharmacological effects on immune function: in vitro studies. Pharmacological Reviews 41, 373–405.Google Scholar
Dinarello, C. A. (1988). Biology of interleukin-1. FASEB Journal 2, 108–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drapier, J. C. & Hibbs, J. B. Jr (1986). Murine cytotoxic activated macrophages inhibit aconitase in tumor cells. Inhibition involves the iron-sulfur prosthetic group and is reversible. Journal of Clinical Investigation 78, 790–801.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Drapier, J. C., Wietzerbin, J. & Hibbs, J. B. (1988). Interferon gamma and tumor necrosis factor induce the L-arginine-dependent cytotoxic effector mechanism in murine macrophages. European Journal of Immunology 18, 1587–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dumont, F. J., Staruch, M. J., Koprak, S. L., Melino, M. R. & Sigal, N. H. (1990). Distinct mechanisms of suppression of murine T cell activation by the related macrolides FK 506 and rapamycin. Journal of Immunology 144, 251–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eugui, E. M., Almquist, S. J., Muller, C. D. & Allison, A. C. (1991). Lymphocyte-selective cytostatic and immunosuppressive effects of mycophenolic acid in vitro: role of deoxyguanosine nucleotide depletion. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology 33, 161–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feng, Z. Y., Louis, J., Kindler, V., Pedrazzini, T., Eliason, J. F., Behin, R. & Vassalli, P. (1988). Aggravation of experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis in mice by administration of interleukin-3. European Journal of Immunology 118, 1245–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferrante, A. (1989). Tumor necrosis factor alpha potentiates neutrophil antimicrobial activity: increased fungicidal activity against Torulopsis glabrata and Candida albicans and associated increases in oxygen radical production and lysosomal enzyme release. Infection and Immunity 57, 2115–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flanagan, W. M., Corthesy, B., Bram, R. J. & Crabtree, G. R. (1991). Nuclear association of a T-cell transcription factor blocked by FK 506 and cyclosporin A. Nature 352, 803–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flower, R. J. & Blackwell, G. J. (1978). Anti-inflammatory steroids induce biosynthesis of a phospholipase A2 inhibitor which prevents prostaglandin generation. Nature 278, 456–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Franco, A., Barnaba, V., Natali, P., Balsano, C., Musca, A. & Balsano, F. (1988). Expression of class I and class II major histocompatibility complex antigen on human hepatocytes. Hepatology 8, 449–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ganser, A., Lindemann, A., Seipelt, G., Ottmann, O. G., Eder, M., Hermann, F., Frisch, J., Schulz, G., Mertelsmann, R. & Hoelzer, D. (1990). Recombinant human interleukin-3 in patients with hematopoietic failure. Recent Results in Cancer Research 121, 162–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gillis, S., Crabtree, G. R. & Smith, K. A. (1979). Glucocorticoid-induced inhibition T cell growth factor production. I. The effect on mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation. Journal of Immunology 123, 1624–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glenny, A. T., Pope, C. G., Waddington, H. & Wallace, U. (1926). The antigenic value of the toxin-antitoxin precipitates of Ramon. Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology 29, 31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grau, G. E., Kindler, V., Piguet, P. F., Lambert, P. H. & Vassalli, P. (1988). Prevention of experimental cerebral malaria by anticytokine antibodies. Interleukin 3 and granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor are intermediates in increased tumor necrosis factor production and macrophage accumulation. Journal of Experimental Medicine 168, 1499–504.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregoriadis, G. & Panagiotidi, C. (1989). Immunoadjuvant action of liposomes: Comparison with other adjuvants. Immunology Letters 20, 237–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, C. R., Gourley, I. M., Cain, G. R., Broaddus, T. W., Cowgill, L. D., Willits, N. H., Patzs, J. D. & Ishizaki, G. (1988). Effects of combination cyclosporin/mizoribine immunosuppression on canine renal allograft recipients. Transplantation 45, 856–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hao, L., Calcinaro, F., Gill, R. C., Eugui, E. M., Allison, A. C. & Lafferty, K. J. (1992). Facilitation of specific tolerance induction in adult mice by RS-61443. Transplantation 53, 590–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hardy, W. D. (1991). Combined ganciclovir and recombinant human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in the treatment of cytomegalovirus retinitis in AIDS patients. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 4, 22–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Heagy, W., Waltenbaugh, C. & Martz, E. (1984). Potent ability of anti-LFA-1 monoclonal antibody to prolong allograft survival. Transplantation 37, 520.Google ScholarPubMed
Heinrich, P. C., Castell, J. V. & Andus, T. (1990). Interleukin 6 and the acute phase response. Biochemical Journal 265, 621–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hibbs, J. B. Jr, Westenfelder, C., Taintor, R., Vavrin, Z., Kablitz, C., Baranowski, R. L., Ward, J. H., Menlove, R. L., McMurray, M. P., Kushner, J. P. & Samlowski, W. E. (1992). Evidence for cytokine-inducible nitric oxide synthesis from L-arginine in patients receiving interleukin-2 therapy. Journal of Clinical Investigation 89, 867–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hibbs, J. B. Jr, Taintor, R. R. & Vavrin, Z. (1987). Macrophage cytotoxicity: role for L-arginine deiminase and imino nitrogen oxidation to nitrite. Science 235, 473–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jablons, D. M., Mule, J. J., McIntosh, J. K., Sehgal, P. B., May, L. T., Huang, C. M., Rosenberg, S. A. & Lotze, M. (1989). IL-6/IFN-beta-2 as a circulating hormone. Induction by cytokine administration in humans. Journal of Immunology 142, 1542–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, A. G., Tomai, M. A., Chen, Y. & Odean, M. (1991). A comparison of the immunomodulating properties of two forms of monophosphoryl lipid A analogues. Journal of Immunotherapy 10, 398–404.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahan, B. D. (1988). Cyclosporine. Orlando: Grune and Stratton.Google ScholarPubMed
Kahan, B. D., Chang, J. Y. & Sehgal, S. N. (1991). Preclinical evaluation of a new potent immunosuppressive agent, rapamycin. Transplantation 52, 185–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kamata, K., Okubo, M., Ishigamori, E., Masaki, Y., Uchida, H., Watanabe, K. & Kashiwagi, N. (1983). Immunosuppressive effect of bredinin on cell-mediated and humoral immune reactions in experimental animals. Transplantation 35, 144–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, M. H. & Volanakis, J. E. (1974). Interaction of C-reactive protein complexes with complement system. I. Consumption of human complement associated with the reaction of CRP with pneumococcal C polysaccharide and with the choline phosphatides lecithin and sphingomyelin. Journal of Immunology 112, 2135–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaharazmi, A., Nielsen, H., Rechenitzer, C. & Bendtzen, K. (1989). Interleukin-6 primes human neutrophile and monocyte oxidative burst response. Immunology Letters 21, 177–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohase, M., Henriksen-Destefenso, D., May, L. T., Vilcek, J. & Sehgal, P. B. (1986). Induction of beta-2 interferon by tumor necrosis factor: a homeostatic mechanism in the control of cell proliferation. Cell 45, 659–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koj, A., Gauldie, J., Regoeczi, E., Sauder, D. N. & Sweeney, G. D. (1984). The acute-phase response of cultured rat hepatocytes. System characterization and the effect of human cytokines. Biochemical Journal 224, 505–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koyami, H. & Tsuji, M. (1983). Genetic and biochemical studies on the activation and cytotoxic mechanism of bredinin a potent inhibitor of purine biosynthesis in mammalian cells. Biochemical Pharmacology 32, 3547–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lamm, D. L., Thor, D. E., Harris, S. C., Reyna, J. A., Stogdill, V. D. & Radwin, H. M. (1980). Bacillus Calmette-Guerin immunotherapy of superficial bladder cancer. Journal of Urology 124, 38–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lancaster, J. R. & Hibbs, J. B. (1990). EPR demonstration of iron-nitrosyl complex formation by cytotoxic activated macrophages Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A.. 87, 1223–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larrick, J. W. & Wright, S. C. (1990). Cytotoxic mechanism of tumor necrosis factor alpha. FASEB Journal 4, 3215–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leslie, K. B. & Schrader, J. W. (1989). Growth factor gene activation and clonal heterogeneity in an autostimulatory myeloid leukemia. Molecular and Cellular Biology 9, 2414–23.Google Scholar
Li, Y., Severn, A., Rogers, M. V., Palmer, R. M. J., Moncada, S. & Liew, F. Y. (1992). Catalase inhibits nitric oxide synthesis and the killing of intracellular Leishmania major in murine macrophages. European Journal of Immunology 22, 441–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liu, J., Farmer, J. D., Lane, W. S., Friedman, J., Weissman, L. & Schreiber, S. L. (1991). Calcineurin is a common target of cyclophilin-cyclosporin A and FKBP-FK 506 complexes. Cell 66, 807–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lopez, A. F., Begley, C. G., Williamson, D. J., Warren, D. J., Vadas, M. A. & Sanderson, C. J. (1986). Murine eosinophil differentiation factor an eosinophil-specific colony-stimulating factor with activity for human cells. Journal of Experimental Medicine 163, 1085–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lotz, M. & Zuraw, B. L. (1987). Interferon-gamma is a major regulator of C1-inhibitor synthesis by human blood monocytes. Journal of Immunology 139, 3382–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Macintyre, S., Kushner, I. & Salmos, D. (1983). Secretion of C-reactive protein becomes more efficient during the course of the acute phase response. Journal of Biological Chemistry 260, 4169–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marletta, M. A. (1989). Nitric oxide: biosynthesis and biological significance. TIBS 14, 988–98.Google ScholarPubMed
Makowka, L. & Cramer, D. V. (1992). Brequinar sodium: a new immunosuppressive drug for transplantation. Transplantation Science 2, 50–4.Google Scholar
Malkovsky, M., Loveland, B., North, M., Asherson, G. L., Gao, L., Ward, P. & Fiers, W. (1987). Recombinant interleukin-2 directly augments the cytotoxicity of human monocytes. Nature 325, 262–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Michael, A., Hackett, J. J., Bennett, M., Kumar, V. & Yuan, D. (1989). Regulation of B lymphocytes by natural killer cells. Role of IFN-gamma. Journal of Immunology 142, 1095–103.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mizuno, K., Tsujino, K., Takeda, M., Kayashi, M., Atsumi, K., Asano, K. & Matsuda, T. (1974). Studies on Bredinin. I. Isolation, characterization and biological properties. Journal of Antibiotics 27, 775–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mold, C., Nakayama, S., Holzer, T. J., Gewurz, H. & du Clos, T. W. (1981). C-reactive protein is protective against Streptococcus pneumoniae infection in mice. Journal of Experimental Medicine 154, 1703–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mold, C., Rodgers, P. C., Kaplan, R. & Gewurtz, H. (1982). Binding of human C-reactive protein to bacteria. Infection and Immunity 38, 392–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morales, A., Eidinger, D. & Bruce, A. W. (1976). Intracavitary Bacillus Calmette-Guerin in the treatment of superficial bladder tumors. Journal of Urology 116, 180–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morein, B. (1988). The ISCOM antigen-presenting system. Nature 332, 287–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrissey, P. J., Bressler, L., Park, L. S., Alpert, A. & Gillis, S. (1987). Granulocyte-macrophage colony- stimulating factor augments the primary antibody response by enhancing the function of antigen-presenting cells. Journal of Immunology 139, 1113–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, R. E. (1991). Rapamycin: FK 506's fraternal twin or distant cousin? Immunology Today 12, 137–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, R. E. (1991). ±15-deoxyspergualin: a mystery wrapped within an enigma. Clinical Transplantation 5, 530–3.Google Scholar
Morris, R. E., Wang, J., Blum, J. R., Flavin, T., Murphy, M. P., Almquist, S. J., Chu, N., Tam, Y. L., Kaloostian, M., Allison, A. C. & Eugui, E. M. (1991). Immunosuppressive effects of the morpholinoethyl ester of mycophenolic acid (RS-61443) in rat and nonhuman primate recipients of heart allografts. Transplantation Proceedings 23, (Suppl. 2yes) 19–25.Google ScholarPubMed
Mortensen, R. F., Shapiro, J., Lin, B. F., Douches, S. & Neta, R. (1988). Interaction of recombinant IL-1 and recombinant tumor necrosis factor in the induction of mouse acute phase proteins. Journal of Immunology 140, 2260–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mosmann, T. R. & Coffman, R. L. (1989). TH1 and TH2 cells: different patterns of lymphokine secretion lead to different functional properties. Annual Review of Immunology 7, 145–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mosmann, T. R. & Moore, K. W. (1991). The role of IL-10 in crossregulation of TH1 and TH2 responses. Immunology Today 12, 49–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nathan, C. F. & Hibbs, J. B. Jr (1991). Role of nitric oxide synthesis in macrophage antimicrobial activity. Current Opinions in Immunology 3, 65–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nussler, A., Drapier, J. C., Renia, L., Pied, S., Miltgen, F., Gentilini, M. & Mazier, D. (1991a). L-arginine-dependent destruction of intrahepatic malaria parasites in response to tumor necrosis factor and/or interleukin-6 stimulation. European Journal of Immunology 21, 227–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nussler, A., Pied, S., Pontet, M., Miltgen, F., Gentilini, M. & Mazier, D. (1991b). Inflammatory status and pre-erythrocytic stages of malaria: Role of the C-reactive protein. Experimental Parasitology 72, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nussler, A. K., di Silvio, M., Billier, T., Hoffman, R. A., Geller, D., Selby, R., Madariaga, J. & Simmons, R. L. (1992). Stimulation of the nitric oxide synthase pathway in human hepatocytes by cytokines and endotoxin. Journal of Experimental Medicine 176, 261–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Okuba, M., Chen, X.-M., Kamata, K., Masaki, Y. & Uchiyama, T. (1986). Suppressive effect of mizoribine on humoral antibody production in DBA/2 mice. Transplantation 41, 495–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parant, M. A. (1987). Muramyl peptides as enhancers of host resistance to bacterial infections. In Immunopharmacology of Infectious Diseases: Vaccine Adjuvants and Modulators of Non-specific Resistance (ed. Madge, J. A.) pp. 7–45. New York: Alan Liss.Google Scholar
Pearce, E. J., Caspar, P., Grzych, J.-M., Lewis, F. A. & Sher, A. (1991). Downregulation of TH1 cytokine production accompanies induction of TH2 responses of a parasitic helminth, Schistosoma mansoni. Journal of Experimental Medicine 173, 159–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pied, S., Renia, L., Nussler, A., Miltgen, F., Gentilini, M. & Mazier, D. (1991). Inhibitory activity of IL-6 on malaria hepatic stages. Parasite Immunology 13, 211–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Platz, K. P., Sollinger, H. W., Hullett, D. A., Eckhoff, D. E., Eugui, E. M. & Allison, A. C. (1991). RS-61443 – a new, potent immunosuppressive agent. Transplantation 51, 27–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ralph, P., Nakoinz, I. & Rennick, D. (1988). Role of interleukin 2, interleukin 4 and alpha, beta and gamma interferon in stimulating macrophage antibody-dependent tumoricidal activity. Journal of Experimental Medicine 167, 712–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramanathan, V. D., Bradenoch-Jones, P. & Turk, J. L. (1979). Complement activation by aluminum and zirconium compounds. Immunology 37, 881–90.Google ScholarPubMed
Ratliff, T. L., Haaf, E. O. & Catalona, W. J. (1986). Interleukin-2 production during intravesical bacille Calmette-Guerin therapy for bladder cancer. Clinical Immunology and Immunopathology 40, 375–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ribi, E. (1984). Beneficial modifications of the endotoxin molecule. Journal of Biological Response Modifiers 3, 1–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Rietschel, E. T., Brade, L., Schade, U., Seydel, U., Zahringer, U., Loppnow, H., Flad, H.-D. & Brade, H. (1989). In Immunological Adjuvants and Vaccines, (ed. Gregoriadis, G., Allison, A. C. & Poste, G.) pp. 61–74. New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roilides, E., Walsh, T. J., Pizzo, P. A. & Rubin, M. (1991). Granulocyte-colony- stimulating factor enhances the phagocytic and bactericidal activity of normal and defective human neutrophils. Journal of Infectious Diseases 163, 579–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roitt, I., Brostoff, J. & Male, D. (1989). Immunology. 2nd edn.Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, London.Google Scholar
Sadick, M. D., Heinzel, F. P., Holaday, B. J., Pu, R. T., Dawkins, R. S. & Locksley, R. M. (1990). Cure of murine leishmaniasis with anti-interleukin-4 monoclonal antibody. Evidence for a T cell-dependent interferon-gamma-independent mechanism. Journal of Experimental Medicine 171, 115–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanceau, J., Falcoff, R., Beranger, F., Carter, D. B. & Wietzerbin, J. (1990). Secretion of interleukin-6 (IL-6) by human monocytes stimulated by muramyl dipeptide and tumor necrosis factor alpha. Immunology 69, 52–61.Google Scholar
Scadden, D. T., Bering, H. A., Levine, J. D., Bresnahan, J., Evens, L., Epstein, C. & Groopman, J. E. (1991). GM-CSF as an alternative to dose modification of the combination zidovudine and interferon-alpha in the treatment of AIDS-associated Kaposi's sarcoma. American Journal of Clinical Oncology 14 (Suppl. 1yes), S40–S44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schrader, J. C. (1991). Interleukin-3. In The Cytokine Handbook, (ed. Thomson, A. W.) pp. 103–17. London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Schreiber, S. L. (1992). Chemistry and biology of the immunophilins and their immunosuppressive ligands. Science, 251, 283–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schreiber, S. L. & Crabtree, G. R. (1992). The mechanism of action of cyclosporin A and FK 506. Immunology Today 13, 136–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scolnick, E. M., McLean, A. A., West, D. J., McAleer, W. J., Miller, W. & Bunyak, E. B. (1984). Clinical evaluation in healthy adults of a hepatitis B vaccine made by recombinant DNA. Journal of the American Medical Association 251, 2812–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott, P., Natovitz, P., Coffman, R. L., Pearce, E. & Sher, A. (1988). Immunoregulation of cutaneous leishmaniasis. T cell lines that transfer protective immunity or exacerbation belong to different T helper subsets and respond to distinct parasite antigens. Journal of Experimental Medicine 168, 1675–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shakib, F. & Stanworth, D. R. (1980). Human IgG subclasses in health and disease (A Review). Part I. La Ricerca Clinical Laboratory 10, 463–560.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soulillou, J.-P., Cantarovich, D., Dantal, J., Hourmant, M., le Mauf, B. & Jackques, Y. (1992). Anti-IL-2 receptor and anti-LFA-1 monoclonal antibodies in transplantation: rationale and Nantes clinical experience. In A Critical Analysis of Monoclonal Antibody Therapy in Transplantation (ed. Burlingham, W. J.) pp. 47–66. Boca Raton: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Stadnyk, A. W. & Gauldie, J. (1991). The acute phase protein response during parasitic infection. Immunology Today 12, A7–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stuehr, D. J. & Marletta, M. A. (1987). Induction of nitrite/nitrate synthesis in murine macrophages by BCG infection, lymphokines, and interferon-gamma. Journal of Immunology 139, 518–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Starzl, T. E., Fung, J., Venkatarmanan, R., Todo, S., Demetris, A. J. & Jain, A. (1989). FK 506 for liver, kidney and pancreas transplantation. Lancet 2, 1000–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Starzl, T. E., Thomson, A. W., Todo, S. & Fung, J. J. (Eds.) (1991). Proceedings of the First International Congress on FK 506. Transplantation Proceedings 23, 2709–3380.Google Scholar
Stotter, H. & Lotze, M. T. (1991). Human Lymphokine Activated Killer Activity: Role of IL-2, IL-4, and IL-7. Archives of Surgery (in press.).Google Scholar
Sugarman, B. J., Aggarwal, B. B., Hass, P. I., Figari, I. S., Palladino, M. A. & Shepard, H. M. (1985). Recombinant human tumor necrosis factor alpha effects on proliferation of normal and transformed cells in vitro. Science 230, 943–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suzuki, S., Hayashi, R., Kenmochi, T., Shimatani, K., Fukuoka, T. & Amemiya, H. (1990). Clinical application of 15-deoxyspergualin for treatment of acute graft rejection following renal transplantation. Transplantation Proceedings 22, 1615–17.Google ScholarPubMed
Swain, S. L., McKenzie, D. T., Dutton, R. W., Tonkonogy, S. L. & English, M. (1988). The role of IL-4 and IL-5: Characterization of a distinct helper T cell subset that makes IL-4 and IL-5 (Th2) and requires priming before induction of lymphokine secretion. Immunological Reviews 102, 77–105.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taira, S., Matsui, M., Hayakawa, K., Yokoyama, T. & Nariuchi, H. (1987). Interleukin-2 secretion by B cell lines and splenic B cells stimulated with calcium ionophore and phorbol ester. Journal of Immunology 139, 2957–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Takahara, S., Fukunishi, T., Kokado, Y., Ichikawa, Y., Ishibashi, M., Nagano, S. & Sonda, T. (1988). Combined immunosuppression with low-dose cyclosporine, mizoribine and prednisolone. Transplantation Proceedings 20, 147–51.Google ScholarPubMed
Takatsu, K., Tominaga, A., Haradda, N., Mita, S., Matsumoto, M., Takahashi, T., Kikuchi, Y. & Yamaguchi, N. (1988). T cell-replacing factor (TRF)/interleukin-5 (IL-5): Molecular and functional properties. Immunological Reviews 102, 107–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomson, A. W. (1989 a). Cyclosporin, Mode of Action and Clinical Applications. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.Google Scholar
Thomson, A. W. (1989 b). FK 506. How much potential? Immunology Today 10, 6–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomson, A. W. (1991). The Cytokine Handbook. London, Academic Press.Google Scholar
Thomson, A. W. (1992). Immunological effects of cyclosporin A. In T-cell directed immunosuppression (ed. Bach, J.-F.) Oxford, London, Boston: Blackwell Scientific Publications.Google Scholar
Tocci, M. J., Matkovich, D. A., Collier, K. A., Kwok, P., Dumont, F., Lin, S., Degudicibus, S., Siekierka, J. J., Chin, J. & Hutchinson, N. I. (1989). The immunosuppressant FK 506 selectively inhibits expression of early T cell activation genes. Journal of Immunology 143, 718.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Todd, R. F., Arnaout, M. A., Rosin, R. E., Crowley, C. A., Peter, W. A. & Babior, B. M. (1984). Subcellular localisation of large subunit of Mo1, a surface glycoprotein associated with neutrophil adhesion. Journal of Clinical Investigation 74, 1280–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Triggiani, M., Cirillo, R., Lichtenstein, L. M. & Marone, G. (1989). Inhibition of histamine and prostaglandin D2 release from human mast cells by ciclosporin A. International Archives of Allergy and Applied Immunology 88, 253–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tsujimoto, M., Yip, Y. K. & Vilcek, J. (1986). Interferon-gamma enhances expression of cellular receptors of tumor necrosis factor. Journal of Immunology 136, 2441–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turka, L. A., Dayton, J., Sinclair, G., Thompson, C. B. & Mitchell, B. S. (1991). Guanine ribonucleotide depletion inhibits T cell activation. Mechanism of action of the immunosuppressive drug mizoribine. Journal of Clinical Investigation 87, 940–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vogel, S. M. & Hogan, M. M. (1989). The role of cytokines in endotoxin-mediated responses. In Immunophysiology: The roles of cells and cytokines in immunity of inflammation (ed. Shevach, E. & Oppenheim, J. J.) pp. 238–258. New York: Oxford Press.Google Scholar
Wang, S. C., Zeevi, A., Jordan, M. L., Simmons, R. L. & Tweardy, D. J. (1991). FK 506, rapamycin and cyclosporine: effects on IL-4 and IL-10 mRNA levels in a T-helper 2 cell line. Transplantation Proceedings 23, 2920–2.Google Scholar
Wolberg, G. (1988). Antipurines and purine metabolism. In The Pharmacology of Lymphocytes (ed. Bray, M. A. & Morley, J.) pp. 517–33. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, K. J., Pearson, T. C., Darby, C. & Morris, P. H. (1991). CD4: A potential target molecule for immunosuppressive therapy and tolerance induction. Transplantation Reviews 5, 150–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wraith, D. & Cooke, A. (1992). Molecular intervention in the therapy of autoimmune disease. In The Molecular Biology of Immunosuppression (ed. Thomson, A. W.) John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, pp. 119–28.Google Scholar
Zamvil, S. S., Nelson, P. A. & Steinman, L. (1992). Monoclonal antibodies and immune intervention in autoimmune disease. In The Molecular Biology of Immunosuppression (ed. Thomson, A. W.) John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, pp. 129–51.Google Scholar