Life history of Ixodes ricinus.

1. Under laboratory conditions, at 60–70° F. the pre-oviposition period was usually found to last 15–22 days.

2. Eggs began to hatch after about 4 weeks at 60–70° F. and after 37 weeks at 50–60° F. in the laboratory.

3. Unfed larvae placed on a hedgehog mostly dropped off gorged in 88–120 hours (shortest feeding period 67½ hours). Larvae gorged on sheep in 65 hours.

4. From larvae gorged in August and kept in the laboratory, nymphs emerged after 6–7 weeks. From larvae gorged in September and October, nymphs emerged after 28–37 weeks.

5. Unfed nymphs gorged in 4–7 days, mostly in 5 days.

6. From nymphs gorged on sheep in spring and summer, and kept in the laboratory at 60–70° F., adults emerged after 10–19 weeks.

7. Females gorged on sheep in 7–11 days, mostly in 8–9 days.

8. Sex ratio: about 5: 9 (basis: 362 males and 671 females emerged from nymphs in the laboratory).

9. Longevity unfed: males and females survived 21 months; one male survived for 31 months in the laboratory. Larvae survived 2 years; some were able to feed after fasting 15 months, and nymphs after fasting 13 months.

Bionomics.

10. Hosts: one or more stages of I. ricinus have been found on the following hosts. Mammals: horse, dog, fox, hedgehog, hare, rabbit, stoat. Birds: hoodie-crow, rook, jackdaw, starling, golden plover, barn owl, kestrel hawk, and merlin hawk.

11. When Blackface and Cheviot sheep were kept on the same pastures in spring, the former became more heavily infested with ticks than the latter. It is said by shepherds that ewes weakened by lambing are more liable to infestation than strong barren ewes. Comparative counts of the infestations of a barren ewe and two ewes with lamb appear to confirm the shepherds' view. Non-acclimatised (experimental) sheep, when exposed on a tick infested farm, rapidly. lost condition at first, and subsequently began to recover. When these sheep, whose health and general condition were low, were compared with native sheep their average infestation with ticks was found to be higher than that of the natives. As the health and weight of the experimental sheep improved, the average infestations of these and of the native stock approximated.

12. Reports on the geographical distribution of I. ricinus in various districts in Scotland, received from sheep farmers and others, are recorded.

13. There is a distinct seasonal periodicity in the activity of I. ricinus. It appeared on sheep early in March, and became increasingly numerous during April-May. In June the numbers began to decrease, and steadily diminished until late August, when there occurred a slight increase in average infestation of sheep. This increase was of short duration and by the middle of November no ticks were found on sheep. The same periodicity was observed in the following spring and summer. An occasional tick was found on sheep during the winter, in mild warm weather. Adult ticks first appeared in early March. Nymphs appeared by the middle of March. Larvae were apparently most numerous in May–June.

14. The seasonal incidence of I. ricinus on sheep in 1930 bore no apparent relation to rainfall.

15. When the variations in average weekly air temperature for 1930–31 are charted in relation to the seasonal incidence of ticks on sheep for that period and the curves compared, there seems to be a correlation between temperature and tick activity. The data indicate that the tick infests sheep in the greatest numbers at 45–60° F. The lower critical temperature for tick activity in nature appears to be 40–45° F., and the higher 60–70° F.

16. Over a thousand gorged nymphs and many larvae have been collected in the field and bred out in the laboratory; in none of them has there been any evidence of hyperparasitism.

The amastigote form of the human pathogen Leishmania mexicana contains high proteinase activity, some 20 times greater than that in the promastigote form and macrophages and appreciably higher than the activity in other flagellate protozoa. The main amastigote enzymes are soluble, whereas those of the promastigote are particulate, and have inhibitor sensitivities characteristic of cysteine proteinases. The very high soluble proteinase activity of L. mexicana amastigotes may be a primary factor in the survival and growth of this mammalian stage in its potentially degradative intracellular habitat.

In order to improve our understanding of the host cell–parasite interactions in giardiasis, this study assessed the effects of Giardia lamblia on epithelial permeability and tight junctional ZO-1, determined whether epidermal growth factor (EGF) may affect Giardia-induced epithelial injury, and evaluated if EGF modulates epithelial colonization by live G. lamblia trophozoites. Permeability was assessed in assays of trans-epithelial fluxes of FITC-dextran, and ZO-1 integrity was characterized by confocal laser immunofluorescence microscopy in confluent epithelial cell monolayers. G. lamblia significantly increased paracellular permeability and disrupted tight-junctional ZO-1 of a novel non-transformed human small intestinal epithelial cell line (SCBN). Pre-treatment with EGF prevented the development of these abnormalities and significantly inhibited attachment of live trophozoites to the enterocytes, independently of a direct microbiocidal action. These findings demonstrate that G. lamblia may cause intestinal pathophysiology by disrupting tight junctional ZO-1 and increasing epithelial permeability. Apical administration of EGF prevents these abnormalities, and reduces epithelial colonization by the live parasites.

Mariculture is a rapidly developing industrial sector. Generally, fish are maintained in net cages with high density. Cage culture systems allow uncontrolled flow of sea water containing potentially infectious stages of fish parasites. In such culture conditions, prevention of such parasitic infections is difficult for parasites with life cycles that complete within culture sites, among which monogeneans and blood flukes are the most important platyhelminthes. Intense monogenean infections induce respiratory and osmo-regulatory dysfunctions. A variety of control measures have been developed, including freshwater bath treatment and chemotherapy. The potential to control monogenean infections through selective breeding, modified culture techniques to avoid infection, and general fish health management are discussed. It should be noted that mariculture conditions have provided some host-specific monogeneans with a chance to expand their host ranges. Blood flukes sometimes induce mass mortality among farmed fish. In-feed administration of praziquantel is the best solution to treat infected fish. Some cases are described that show how international trade in marine fish has resulted in the spread of hitherto unknown parasites into indigenous farmed and wild fish.

A retrospective analysis was performed of parasite count data recorded from the first 7 days of blood or mosquito transmitted Plasmodium falciparum infections given for the treatment of neurosyphilis in the USA before 1963. The objective of this study was to characterize initial growth dynamics before host defences have significant effects on the infecting parasite population. Of the 328 patients' data available for analysis, 83 were excluded because they had received anti-malarial treatment during the first 7 days of the patent infection. Nonlinear mixed effects modelling was performed to estimate the parameters of interest; ‘parasite multiplication rate per 48 h’ (PMR), and length of the parasite life-cycle (periodicity). The parasitaemia versus time profiles showed great variability between patients. The mean population estimate of ‘PMR’ was approximately 8, and was highly dependent on the P. falciparum ‘strain’. PMR also varied significantly between patients with a 90% prediction interval varying from 5·5 to 12·3-fold. Both intrinsic parasite multiplication rate (an intrinsic virulence determinant), and host susceptibility and defence contribute to expansion of the parasite biomass and thus disease severity in falciparum malaria.

Data on parasites of rodents, collected over an 18-year period on the Iberian peninsula, were used to find the determinants of parasite species richness. A total of 77 species of helminth parasites (nematodes, cestodes and digeneans) was identified among 16 species of rodents. Parasites were classified into groups according to their specificity towards their host and their life-cycle. A working phylogeny of the rodents was proposed on the basis of molecular and paleontological data and for each host the following parameters were recorded: sample size, weight, geographical range, longevity, and life-style. Two comparative methods were used, the independent comparisons method of Pagel (1992) and the distance matrix method of Legendre, Lapointe & Casgrain (1995). The second method has the advantage of measuring the relative contribution of phylogeny. Both methods gave similar results. Overall parasite species richness correlated only with host sample size. Host body size does not correlate with any subset of parasite species richness. However, host phylogeny is a good predicator of specific parasites and the species richness of digeneans correlates with host geographical range. A phylogenetic reconstruction of host relations was performed using the parasites belonging to subgroups in which richness is correlated with host phylogeny. These parasite species were treated as Dollo characters, i.e. we made the assumption that the loss of a parasite species is irreversible. The consensus tree obtained reflects the major phylogenetic divisions of the host group. Finally, this study illustrates the relative importance of processes acting at different temporal and spatial scales (evolutionary time and actual geographical range of hosts) in determining the structure of helminth parasite fauna.

Resistance in Fasciola hepatica to triclabendazole (‘Fasinex’) has emerged in several countries. Benzimidazole resistance in parasitic nematodes has been linked to a single amino acid substitution (phenylalanine to tyrosine) at position 200 on the β-tubulin molecule. Sequencing of β-tubulin cDNAs from triclabendazole-susceptible and triclabendazole-resistant flukes revealed no amino acid differences between their respective primary amino acid sequences. In order to investigate the mechanism of triclabendazole resistance, triclabendazole-susceptible and triclabendazole-resistant flukes were incubated in vitro with triclabendazole sulphoxide (50 μg/ml). Scanning and transmission electron microscopy revealed extensive damage to the tegument of triclabendazole-susceptible F. hepatica, whereas triclabendazole-resistant flukes showed only localized and relatively minor disruption of the tegument covering the spines. Immunocytochemical studies, using an anti-tubulin antibody, showed that tubulin organization was disrupted in the tegument of triclabendazole-susceptible flukes. No such disruption was evident in triclabendazole-resistant F. hepatica. The significance of these findings is discussed with regard to the mechanism of triclabendazole resistance in F. hepatica.

Rodents are shared intermediate or paratenic hosts for Echinococcus multilocularis, Toxocara spp. and Toxoplasma gondii, and may serve as valuable indicators for assessing the occurrence and the level of environmental contamination and infection pressure with free-living stages of these zoonotic parasites. We investigated 658 non-commensal rodents for parasite infections in the canton of Geneva, Switzerland. The prevalence of infection with E. multilocularis was highest in Arvicola terrestris captured in the north-western area (16·5%, CI: 10·1%–24·8%), possibly reflecting a higher red fox density due to the low incidence of sarcoptic mange in this part of the canton. The exposure rate to Toxocara spp. was highest in the urban area (13·2%, CI: 7·9%–20·3%), and may account for higher densities of domestic carnivore and red fox definitive hosts within the city. Exposure to T. gondii was widespread (5·0%, CI: 3·2–7·4%), indicating a ubiquitous distribution of infected cat definitive hosts. Interestingly, a widespread distribution of Taenia taeniaeformis, a parasite mainly transmitted by cats, was similarly evidenced in A. terrestris. Distinct spatial patterns for the different zoonotic parasites likely reflected differences in distribution, abundance, and habitat use of the respective definitive hosts. These results highlight the potential value of rodents as shared indicators for these pathogens.

All the classical transmitter ligand molecules evolved at least 1000 million years ago. With the possible exception of the Porifera and coelenterates (Cnidaria), they occur in all the remaining phyla. All transmitters have evolved the ability to activate a range of ion channels, resulting in excitation, inhibition and biphasic or multiphasic responses. All transmitters can be synthesised in all three basic types of neurones, i.e. sensory, interneurone and motoneurone. However their relative importance as sensory, interneurone or motor transmitters varies widely between the phyla. It is likely that all neurons contain more than one type of releasable molecule, often a combination of a classical transmitter and a neuroactive peptide. Second messengers, i.e. G proteins and phospholipase C systems, appeared early in evolution and occur in all phyla that have been investigated. Although the evidence is incomplete, it is likely that all the classical transmitter receptor subtypes identified in mammals, also occur throughout the phyla. The invertebrate receptors so far cloned show some interesting homologies both between those from different invertebrate phyla and with mammalian receptors. This indicates that many of the basic receptor subtypes, including benzodiazepine subunits, evolved at an early period, probably at least 800 million years ago. Overall, the evidence stresses the similarity between the major phyla rather than their differences, supporting a common origin from primitive helminth stock.

Recent research suggests that vertical transmission may play an important role in sustaining Toxoplasma gondii infection in some species. We report here that congenital transmission occurs at consistently high levels in pedigree Charollais and outbred sheep flocks sampled over a 3-year period. Overall rates of transmission per pregnancy determined by PCR based diagnosis, were consistent over time in a commercial sheep flock (69%) and in sympatric (60%) and allopatric (41%) populations of Charollais sheep. The result of this was that 53·7% of lambs were acquiring an infection prior to birth: 46·4% of live lambs and 90·0% of dead lambs (in agreement with the association made between T. gondii and abortion). No significant differences were observed between lamb sexes. Although we cannot distinguish between congenital transmission occurring due to primary infection at pregnancy or reactivation of chronic infection during pregnancy, our observations of consistently high levels of congenital transmission over successive lambings favour the latter.

New or improved techniques for recovering Schistosoma mansoni from the skin, lungs and liver have enabled us to trace the attrition of a challenge infection in naive (i.e. previously uninfected) and chronically infected mice. Within each experiment, the numbers of schistosomes recovered from the skin of naive mice on day 2 after challenge or from the skin and lungs on days 3, 4 or 5, did not differ significantly from the numbers recovered from the liver on days 14, 21, 28 or 35. Approximately 65% of cercariae which penetrated the skin failed to be recovered from naive mice by any of the assays and it appeared that these schistosomes had already died in the skin in the first 24 h. No further significant loss of the infection was detected in naive mice. In chronically infected mice a further attrition of the challenge infection was demonstrated in two distinct phases. An ‘early phase’ occurred within the first 3 days of exposure and accounted for the death of 30% of the remaining parasites. A ‘late phase’ occurred between days 6 and 14 and accounted for an additional 43% of deaths. Thus, the two phases of attrition accounted for a loss of approximately 73% of the infection that would have survived in naive mice. The late phase of attrition could be demonstrated before the primary infection had matured, in contrast to the early phase of attrition which was seen only after egg laying had commenced. We believe that the early phase of attrition takes place in the skin and the late phase occurs after the schistosomes have left the lungs, either en route for the liver or as soon as they arrive in that organ. The results suggest that there are two distinct mechanisms of immunity against re-infection with S. mansoni in mice.

Gametogenesis in Plasmodium gallinaceum involves bicarbonate-dependent processes and requires a continuous supply of glucose (presumably as an energy source). Emergence and exflagellation of gametocytes, in vitro, occur independently of the CO2 tension but are rigidly correlated with the pH of the external medium. In bicarbonate-saline gametogenesis is initiated only if the pH exceeds 7·7. Our results suggest that gamete development of malaria parasites is stimulated when infected blood is exposed to air because the decrease in the CO2 tension of the blood causes its pH to rise.

Dynamic models which predict changes in the intensity of schistosome infection with host age are fitted to pre-intervention Schistosoma mansoni data from Kenya. Age-specific post-treatment-reinfection data are used to estimate the force of infection, thus enabling investigation of the rate of worm death. An empirical and statistical approach is taken to the model fitting: where possible, distributional properties and function relationships are obtained from the data rather than assumed from theory. Attempts are made to remove known sources of bias. Maximum likelihood techniques, employed to allow for error in both the pre-intervention and reinfection data, yield confidence intervals for the worm life-span (CI95% = 5·7–10·5 years) and demonstrate that the worm death rate is unlikely to vary with host age. The possibilities and limitations of fitting dynamic models to data are discussed. We conclude that a detailed, quantitative approach will be necessary if progress is to be made with the interpretation of epidemiological data and the models intended to describe them.

Treatment of Visceral Leishmaniasis (VL), a neglected tropical disease, is very challenging with few treatment options. Long duration of treatment and drug toxicity further limit the target of achieving VL elimination. Chemotherapy remains the treatment of choice. Single dose of liposomal amphotericin B (LAmB) and multidrug therapy (LAmB + miltefosine, LAmB + paromomycin (PM), or miltefosine + PM) are recommended treatment regimen for treatment of VL in Indian sub-continent. Combination therapy of pentavalent antimonials (Sbv) and PM in East Africa and LAmB in the Mediterranean region/South America remains the treatment of choice. Various drugs having anti-leishmania properties are in preclinical phase and need further development. An effective treatment and secondary prophylaxis of HIV-VL co-infection should be developed to decrease treatment failure and drug resistance.

The four most important forms of malnutrition worldwide (protein-energy malnutrition, iron deficiency and anaemias (IDA), vitamin A deficiency (VAD), and iodine deficiency disorders (IDD)) are examined below in terms of their global and regional prevalences, the age and gender groups most affected, their clinical and public health consequences, and, especially, the recent progress in country and regional quantitation and control. Zinc deficiency, with its accompanying diminished host resistance and increased susceptibility to infections, is also reviewed. WHO estimates that malnutrition (underweight) was associated with over half of all child deaths in developing countries in 1995. The prevalence of stunting in developing countries is expected to decline from 36% in 1995 to 32·5% in 2000; the numbers of children affected (excluding China) are expected to decrease from 196·59millions to 181·92millions. Stunting affects 48% of children in South Central Asia, 48% in Eastern Africa, 38% in South Eastern Asia, and 13–24% in Latin America. IDA affects about 43% of women and 34% of men in developing countries and usually is most serious in pregnant women and children, though non-pregnant women, the elderly, and men in hookworm-endemic areas also comprise groups at risk. Clinical VAD affects at least 2·80million preschool children in over 60 countries, and subclinical VAD is considered a problem for at least 251millions; school-age children and pregnant women are also affected. Globally about 740million people are affected by goitre, and over two billions are considered at risk of IDD. However, mandatory salt iodisation in the last decade in many regions has decreased dramatically the percentage of the population at risk. Two recent major advances in understanding the global importance of malnutrition are (1) the data of 53 countries that links protein-energy malnutrition (assessed by underweight) directly to increased child mortality rates, and (2) the outcome in 6 of 8 large vitamin A supplementation trials showing decreases of 20–50% in child mortality.

Bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma congolense (2 clones: ILNat3·1 and IL3000, and 4 stocks: IL2079, IL2466, IL3266 and CP-81) were continuously cultivated in vitro at 34–36 °C in the absence of feeder cell layers, using HMI-93 medium which was modified from Iscove's modified Dulbecco's MEM (Flow Laboratories, Irvine, Scotland). The modification was done by supplementing the medium with 0·05 mM bathocuproine sulphonate, 1·5 mM L-cysteine, 0·5 mM hypoxanthine, 0·12 mM 2-mercaptoethanol, 1 mM sodium pyruvate, 0·16 mM thymidine, 20% (v/v) heat-inactivated young goat serum and 5% (v/v) Serum Plus™ (Hazleton Biologics, Lenaxa, KS, USA). Trypanosomes obtained from two different sources were used to initiate primary cultures: (1) metacyclic forms which were produced in vitro at 27 °C, and (2) bloodstream forms obtained from Balb/c mice which had been infected with the bloodstream forms transformed in vitro from the metacyclic forms. Metacyclic forms placed in 25 cm2 T-type (T-25) flasks rapidly attached to the bottom of the flasks and transformed to bloodstream forms during the initial 24 h and continued to proliferate. The bloodstream forms isolated from the infected mouse blood by means of diethylaminoethyl cellulose (DE52) column chromatography also continued to proliferate in the flasks. Cultures were maintained by replacing the medium every 24 h. Every 4–5 days, the attached bloodstream forms were resuspended in fresh medium by gentle pipetting and then were subcultured. The method was further simplified by initiating primary cultures directly with 10 μl of the tail blood of infected mice in 24-well culture plates and then by subcultivating either in wells or in T-25 flasks. The shortest population doubling time, 9 h, was achieved by seeding subcultures with 106 bloodstream forms/ml. The bloodstream forms propagated in this system were morphologically similar to those seen in infected mouse blood, they were covered with a surface coat as examined by electron microscopy and they were infective to mice.

An epidemiological survey of intestinal helminthiases was conducted on 766 primary school children aged 5–16 years from Ile-Ife, Nigeria. On the basis of stool examinations, the prevalence of Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, hookworm and Strongyloides stercoralis was 88·5, 84·5, 33·1 and 3% respectively. Intensity of infection was measured indirectly by egg counts for each species of helminth and also by counting worms passed after chemotherapy in the case of A. lumbricoides. The influence of host age and sex on infection levels was assessed. Relationships between the intensities of A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura and hookworm in individual children were identified. After anthelmintic treatment with levamisole, the frequency distribution of A. lumbricoides per host and the relationship between parasite fecundity and worm burden were investigated.

Host immunoglobulin G (IgG) crossed the gut wall into the haemocoel of adult Rhipicephalus appendiculatus female ticks when they fed on guinea-pigs. Guinea-pig IgG was also found in saliva of the feeding ticks. The concentration and antibody activity of IgG in haemolymph, salivary gland extract (SGE) and saliva at different stages of tick feeding were detected by enzyme-linked immunoassay. Specific activity of the IgG in tick samples was determined by feeding ticks on guinea-pigs which were immunized with killed Escherichia coli: 35–42% of the antibody activity in guinea-pig immune serum remained in the tick samples. The high relative concentration of IgG in tick saliva at later stages of feeding suggests that the tick may have a mechanism for getting rid of foreign proteins via the salivary gland. Such a mechanism could involve lgG binding proteins (1GBPs) which were found in both haemolymph and SGE of female ticks at day 6 of feeding using a guinea-pig IgG–agarose affinity column. In female ticks, the Mr of 1GBPs in SGE (23 and 57 kDa) were less than those in haemolymph (78 and > 100 kDa). The existence of 1GBPs in both the tick salivary gland and haemolymph indicate that haemolymph and salivary gland cooperate to remove foreign proteins, e.g. host immunoglobulin, from the body during feeding. This mechanism may be a part of the tick self-defence system.

Humans and other hosts acquire Toxoplasma gondii infection by ingesting tissue cysts in undercooked meat, or by food or drink contaminated with oocysts. Currently, there is no vaccine to prevent clinical disease due this parasite in humans, although, various T. gondii vaccine candidates are being developed. Mice are generally used to test the protective efficacy of vaccines because they are susceptible, reagents are available to measure immune parameters in mice, and they are easily managed in the laboratory. In the present study, pathogenesis of toxoplasmosis was studied in mice of different strains, including Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) transgenic mice infected with different doses of T. gondii strains of different genotypes derived from several countries. Based on many experiments, the decreasing order of infectivity and pathogenicity of oocysts was: C57BL/6 background interferon gamma gene knock out (KO), HLA-A*1101, HLA-A*0201, HLA-B*0702, Swiss Webster, C57/black, and BALB/c. Mice fed as few as 1 oocyst of Type I and several atypical strains died of acute toxoplasmosis within 21 days p.i. Some Type II, and III strains were less virulent. The model developed herein should prove to be extremely useful for testing vaccines because it is possible to accurately quantitate a challenge inoculum, test the response to different strains of T. gondii using the same preparations of oocysts which are stable for up to a year, and to have highly reproducible responses to the infection.

American trypanosamiasis occurs in nature as a sylvatic cycle, where Trypanosoma cruzi interacts with wild triatomines and mammalian reservoirs, such as marsupials, rodents, armadillos and other animals. Due to difficulties in trying to isolate T. cruzi stocks from the sylvatic cycle, very few studies have been performed in order to understand the parasite infection in natural environments. Traditionally T. cruzi has been considered to be composed of a highly heterogeneous population of parasites. In contrast, the mini-exon and the 24Sα rRNA gene loci have shown that T. cruzi stocks can be clustered in 2 major phylogenetic groups: lineage 1 and lineage 2. In this report, 68 recently isolated T. cruzi samples from the sylvatic cycle belonging to different geographical areas in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, have been typed based on a variable spot in the non-transcribed spacer of the mini-exon gene. Eight isolates were from triatomines, 26 stocks were from golden-lion tamarins, 31 from opossums, 2 from rodents and 1 from a three-toed sloth. Thirty (44% – 30/68) isolates were typed as lineage 1, while 36 (53% – 36/68) isolates were typed as lineage 2. Two opossums presented mixed infection. Therefore, 3% (2/68) of the isolates were typed as lineage 1+lineage 2. Using these geographical regions as models of sylvatic environments, it was observed that 96% of the Didelphis marsupialis were infected by lineage 2 isolates, while all 26 golden-lion tamarins were infected by lineage 1. The results show preferential association of the 2 lineages of T. cruzi with different hosts, composing the complexity of the sylvatic cycle.