Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T07:54:46.609Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Organizing Women as Women: Hybridity and Grassroots Collective Action in the 21st Century

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 March 2010

Kristin A. Goss  and
Michael T. Heaney
Kristin A. Goss
Affiliation:
Sanford School of Public Policy, Duke University. E-mail: kgoss@duke.edu
Michael T. Heaney
Affiliation:
University of Michigan. E-mail: mheaney@umich.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The Million Mom March (favoring gun control) and Code Pink: Women for Peace (focusing on foreign policy, especially the war in Iraq) are organizations that have mobilized women as women in an era when other women's groups struggled to maintain critical mass and turned away from non-gender-specific public issues. This article addresses how these organizations fostered collective consciousness among women, a large and diverse group, while confronting the echoes of backlash against previous mobilization efforts by women. We argue that the March and Code Pink achieved mobilization success by creating hybrid organizations that blended elements of three major collective action frames: maternalism, egalitarianism, and feminine expression. These innovative organizations invented hybrid forms that cut across movements, constituencies, and political institutions. Using surveys, interviews, and content analysis of organizational documents, this article explains how the March and Code Pink met the contemporary challenges facing women's collective action in similar yet distinct ways. It highlights the role of feminine expression and concerns about the intersectional marginalization of women in resolving the historic tensions between maternalism and egalitarianism. It demonstrates hybridity as a useful analytical lens to understand gendered organizing and other forms of grassroots collective action.

Type
Research Article
Information
Perspectives on Politics , Volume 8 , Issue 1 , March 2010 , pp. 27 - 52
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abileah, Rae. 2007. Interview with authors, September 18. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Abileah, Rae. 2008. Correspondence with authors, November 30.Google Scholar
Albert, Stuart, and Whetten, David A.. 1985. Organizational Identity. Research in Organizational Behavior 7: 263–95.Google Scholar
Amburgey, Terry L., and Rao, Hayagreeva. 1996. Organizational Ecology: Past, Present, and Future Directions. Academy of Management Journal 39 (5): 1265–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Apple, Ed. 2000. “About That New Jersey Mom. Letter to the Editor.” Washington Post, May 13: A20.Google Scholar
Armstrong, Elizabeth A. 2002. Forging Gay Identities: Organizing Sexuality in San Francisco, 1950–1994. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Armstrong, Elizabeth A., and Bernstein, Mary. 2008. Culture, Power, and Institutions: a Multi-Institutional Politics Approach to Social Movements. Sociological Theory 26 (1): 74–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnold, R. Douglas. 1990. The Logic of Congressional Action. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Aronson, Pamela. 2003. Feminists or ‘Postfeminists’?: Young Women's Attitudes toward Feminism and Gender Relations. Gender and Society 17 (6): 903–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumgardner, Jennifer, and Richards, Amy. 2000. Manifesta: Young Women, Feminism, and the Future. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.Google Scholar
Beamish, Thomas D., and Luebbers, Amy J.. 2009. Alliance Building across Social Movements: Bridging Difference in a Peace and Justice Coalition. Social Problems 56 (4): 647–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bellafante, Ginia. 1998. “Feminism: It's all about me!” Time, June 29: 54.Google Scholar
Benford, Robert D., and Snow, David A.. 2000. Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment. Annual Review of Sociology 26: 611–639.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benjamin, Medea. 2005. Interview with authors, March 20. Fayetteville, NC.Google Scholar
Benjamin, Medea. 2008. Correspondence with the authors, October 14.Google Scholar
Blankley, Tony. 2000. “Clinton Ally Leads March.” Washington Times, May 10: A19.Google Scholar
Boettcher, William A., and Cobb, Michael D.. 2009. ‘Don't Let Them Die in Vain’ Casualty Frames and Public Tolerance for Escalating Commitment in Iraq. Journal of Conflict Resolution 53 (5): 677–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borgatti, Stephen P., Everett, Martin G., and Freeman, Linton C.. 2007. Ucinet 6.146 for Windows. Harvard, MA: Analytic Technologies.Google Scholar
Bozell, L. Brent III. 2000. “A Free Ride for ‘a Million’ Moms.” Washington, DC: Media Research Center, May 11. http://www.mediaresearch.org/BozellColumns/newscolumn/2000/col20000511.asp, accessed August, 20, 2009.Google Scholar
Browne, William P. 1988. Private Interests, Public Policy and American Agriculture. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press.Google Scholar
Browne, William P. 1990. Organized Interests and Their Issue Niches: A Search for Pluralism in a Policy Domain. Journal of Politics 52 (2): 447–509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Judith. 1990. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Carroll, William K., and Ratner, R.S.. 1996. Master Framing and Cross-Movement Networking in Contemporary Social Movements. Sociological Quarterly 37 (4): 601–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Catalano, Shannon. 2007. Intimate Partner Violence in the United States. Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics, December. http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/intimate/circumstances.htm, accessed August 20, 2009.Google Scholar
Chadwick, Andrew. 2007. Digital Network Repertoires and Organizational Hybridity. Political Communication 24 (3): 283–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clemens, Elisabeth S. 1997. The People's Lobby: Organizational Innovation and the Rise of Interest Group Politics in the United States, 1890–1925. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Code Pink. 2006. “Thank You CODEPINK for Organizing the Mother's Day Vigil in DC!” San Francisco, CA: Code Pink: Women for Peace. http://codepinkalert.org/article.php?list=class&class=20&type=142, accessed August 20, 2009.Google Scholar
Code Pink. 2008a. “Local Groups.” San Francisco, CA: Code Pink: Women for Peace. http://codepinkalert.org/article.php?list=type&type=4, accessed August 20, 2009.Google Scholar
Code Pink. 2008b. Why Women? San Francisco, CA: Code Pink: Women for Peace. http://codepinkalert.org/article.php?list=type&type=3, accessed August 20, 2009.Google Scholar
Cohen, Cathy J. 1999. The Boundaries of Blackness: AIDS and the Breakdown of Black Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collie, Melissa P. 1984. Voting Behavior in Legislatures. Legislative Studies Quarterly 9 (1): 3–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, Patricia Hill. 2000. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Cook, Philip J., and Ludwig, Jens. 2000. Gun Violence: The Real Costs. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Costain, Anne N. 1992. Inviting Women's Rebellion: A Political Process Interpretation of the Women's Movement. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Cott, Nancy F. 1986. Feminist Theory and Feminist Movements: The Past Before Us. In What Is Feminism? A Re-Examination, ed. Mitchell, Juliet and Oakley, Ann. New York: Pantheon, 49–62.Google Scholar
Cott, Nancy F. 1987. The Grounding of Modern Feminism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Crenshaw, Kimberlé. 1989. Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum 39: 139–67.Google Scholar
Dees, Donna. 2008. Telephone interview with authors, March 28.Google Scholar
Dees-Thomases, Donna. 2004. Looking for a Few Good Moms: How One Mother Rallied a Million Others against the Gun Lobby. New York: Rodale.Google Scholar
Department of Homeland Security. 2008. Homeland Security Advisor System: Current Threat Level. Washington, DC: Department of Homeland Security. http://www.dhs.gov/xinfoshare/programs/Copy_of_press_releast_0046.shtm, accessed August 1, 2008.Google Scholar
Dietz, Mary. 1985. Citizenship with a Feminist Face: The Problem with Maternal Thinking. Political Theory 13 (1): 19–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dionne, E.J. Jr. 1991. Why Americans Hate Politics. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
DiQuinzio, Patrice. 2005. Love and Reason in the Public Sphere: Maternalist Civic Engagement and the Dilemma of Difference. In Women and Children First, ed. Meagher, Sharon M. and DiQuinzio, Patrice. Albany: State University of New York Press, 227–46.Google Scholar
Echols, Alice. 1989. Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967–1975. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Emma's Revolution. 2004. One × 1,000,000. Code Pink. http://www.emmasrevolution.com/listen/album/one/12-codepink/, accessed December 30, 2008.Google Scholar
Evans, Rhonda, and Kay, Tamara. 2008. How Environmentalists ‘Greened’ Trade Policy: Strategic Action and the Architecture of Field Overlap. American Sociological Review 73 (6): 970–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, Sara. 1979. Personal Politics: The Roots of Women's Liberation in the Civil Rights Movement & the New Left. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Fairooz, Desiree. 2008. Interview with authors, June 23. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Faludi, Susan. 1992. Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women. New York: Anchor.Google Scholar
Farrar, Margaret E., and Warner, Jamie L.. 2006. Rah-Rah Radical: The Radical Cheerleaders' Challenge to the Public Sphere. Politics & Gender 2(3): 281–302.Google Scholar
Farrar, Margaret E., and Warner, Jamie L.. 2008. Spectacular Resistance: The Billionaires for Bush and the Art of Political Culture Jamming. Polity 40 (3): 273–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fenno, Richard F. 1977. U.S. House Members in their Constituencies: An Exploration. American Political Science Review 71 (3): 883–917.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernandez, Manny. 2003. “Two Area Women Headed to Iraq with Peace Group.” Washington Post, January 31: B3.Google Scholar
Finnegan, Margaret. 1999. Selling Suffrage. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Gamson, William A. 1992. Talking Politics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gans, Herbert J. 1979. Deciding What's News. New York: Pantheon.Google Scholar
Gitlin, Todd. 2003. The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and the Unmaking of the New Left. Berkeley: University of California.Google Scholar
Goffman, Erving. 1974. Frame Analysis: An Essay on the Organization of Experience. Boston: Northeastern University Press.Google Scholar
Goold, Bill. 2008. Interview with authors, June 20. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Goss, Kristin A. 2006. Disarmed: The Missing Movement for Gun Control in America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Goss, Kristin A. 2009a. Never Surrender? How Women's Groups Abandoned their Policy Niche in U.S. Foreign Policy Debates, 1916–2000. Politics & Gender 5 (4): 1–37.Google Scholar
Goss, Kristin A. 2009b. “Voice & Equality? Women's Group Advocacy on Capitol Hill, 1878–2000.” Paper Presented at the Spring Speakers' Series, Department of Political Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, March 2.Google Scholar
Goss, Kristin A., and Skocpol, Theda. 2006. Changing Agendas: The Impact of Feminism on American Politics. In Gender and Social Capital, ed. O'Neill, Brenda and Gidengil, Elisabeth. New York: Routledge, 323–56.Google Scholar
Gray, Virginia, and Lowery, David. 1996. A Niche Theory of Interest Representation. Journal of Politics 58 (1): 91–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grieco, Elizabeth M. 2001. The White Population: Census 2000 Brief. Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of the Census. http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-4.pdf, accessed August 20, 2009.Google Scholar
Gupte, Manjusha. 2002. Gender, Feminist Consciousness, and the Environment: Exploring the ‘Natural’ Connection. Women & Politics 24 (1): 47–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haines, Herbert. H. 1988. Black Radicals and the Civil Rights Mainstream, 1954–1970. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.Google Scholar
Hannan, Michael T. 2005. Ecologies of Organizations: Diversity and Identity. Journal of Economic Perspectives 19 (1): 51–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawkesworth, Mary. 2004. The Semiotics of Premature Burial: Feminism in a Postfeminist Age. Signs 29 (4): 961–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heaney, Michael T. 2004. Outside the Issue Niche: The Multidimensionality of Interest Group Identity. American Politics Research 32 (6): 611–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heaney, Michael T., and Rojas, Fabio. 2007. “Partisans, Nonpartisans and the Antiwar Movement in the United States.” American Politics Research 35 (4): 431–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heaney, Michael T., and Rojas, Fabio. 2008. Coalition Dissolution, Mobilization, and Network Dynamics in the U.S. Antiwar Movement. Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change 28: 39–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isaac, Larry, and Christiansen, Lars. 2002. How the Civil Rights Movement Revitalized Labor Militancy. American Sociological Review 67 (5): 722–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Isaac, Larry, McDonald, Steve, and Lukasik, Greg. 2006. Takin' It from the Streets: How the Sixties Mass Movement Revitalized Unionization. American Journal of Sociology 112(1): 46–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, Victoria. 2007. What is Organizational Imprinting? Cultural Entrepreneurship in the Founding of the Paris Opera. American Journal of Sociology 113 (1): 97–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, Hank, and Aarelaid-Tart, Aili. 2000. Generations, Microcohorts, and Long-Term Mobilization: The Estonian National Movement, 1940–1991. Sociological Perspectives 43 (4): 671–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahn, Kim Fridkin. 1993. Gender Differences in Campaign Messages: The Political Advertisements of Men and Women Candidates for U. S. Senate. Political Research Quarterly 46 (3): 481–502.Google Scholar
Kaminer, Wendy. 1984. Women Volunteering: The Pleasure, Pain, and Politics of Unpaid Work from 1830 to the Present. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press.Google Scholar
Kane, Tim. 2005. Who Bears the Burden? Demographic Characteristics of U.S. Military Recruits Before and After 9/11. Center for Data Analysis Report #05-08. Washington, DC: Heritage Foundation. http://www.heritage.org/research/nationalsecurity/cda05-08.cfm, accessed August 20, 2009.Google Scholar
King, Anthony. 1997. Running Scared. The Atlantic 279 (1): 41–61.Google Scholar
Kopel, Dave. 2000. Second Amendment Project Newsletter, May 26. http://www.davekopel.com/2A/Newsletter/SAP2000/2000-May-26.htm, accessed August 20, 2009.Google Scholar
Kraatz, Matthew S., and Block, Emily S.. 2008. Organizational Implications of Institutional Pluralism. In The SAGE Handbook of Organizational Institutionalism, ed. Greenwood, Roysten, Oliver, Christine, Sahlin-Andersson, Kerstin, and Suddaby, Roy. London: Sage Publications, 243–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kraditor, Aileen. 1971. The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement, 1890–1920. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.Google Scholar
Kurtz, Sharon. 2002. Workplace Justice: Organizing Multi-Identity Movements. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Kutz-Flamenbaum, Rachel V. 2007. Code Pink, Raging Grannies, and the Missile Dick Chicks: Feminist Performance Activism in the Contemporary Anti-War Movement. National Women's Studies Association (NWSA) Journal 19 (1): 89–105.Google Scholar
Larson, Stephanie Greco. 2001. ‘Running as Women’? A Comparison of Female and Male Pennsylvania Assembly Candidates' Campaign Brochures. Women & Politics 22 (2): 107–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, Barbara. 2005. Panel presentation at the Aspen Institute Workshop on Women and Political Leadership, Washington, DC, July 20.Google Scholar
MacDonald, Christine. 2008. “Rose-Colored Clashes.” Washington City-Paper, January 11: 22–31.Google Scholar
Mansbridge, Jane. 1986. Why We Lost the ERA. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marger, Martin N. 1984. Social Movement Organizations and Response to Environmental Change: The NAACP, 1960–1973. Social Problems 32 (1): 16–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayhew, David R. 1974. Congress: The Electoral Connection. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug. 1982. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McAdam, Doug., and Rucht, Dieter. 1993. The Cross-National Diffusion of Movement Ideas. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 528 (1): 56–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonagh, Eileen. 2009. The Motherless State: Women's Political Leadership and American Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, David S. 2004. Protest and Political Opportunities. Annual Review of Sociology 30: 125–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, David S., and Whittier, Nancy. 1994. Social Movement Spillover. Social Problems 41 (2): 277–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milligan, Susan. 2000. “NRA's Top Brass Aims for Gore.” Boston Globe, May 21. http://graphics.boston.com/news/politics/campaign2000/news/NRA_s_top_brass_aims_for_Gore+.shtml, accessed August 20, 2009.Google Scholar
Million Mom March. 1999. “The Biography of the Original 100 Founding Moms of the Million Mom March, Mothers' Day 2000.” Web document, no longer accessible; in possession of authors.Google Scholar
Million Mom March. 2000. The Million Mom March Newsletter, May 1.Google Scholar
Minkoff, Debra C. 1995. Organizing for Equality: The Evolution of Women's and Racial-Ethnic Organizations in America, 1955–1985. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Minkoff, Debra C. 1999. Bending with the Wind: Strategic Change and Adaptation by Women's and Racial Minority Organizations. American Journal of Sociology 104 (6): 1666–1703.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Minkoff, Debra C. 2002. The Emergence of Hybrid Organizational Forms: Combining Identity-Based Service Provision and Political Action. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 31 (3): 377–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moreno, Sylvia, and Sun, Lena H.. 2003. “In Effort to Keep the Peace, Protesters Declare ‘Code Pink’.” Washington Post, March 9: C1.Google Scholar
Murphy, Gael. 2008. Interview with authors, June 24. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Nepstad, Sharon E. 2004. Persistent Resistance. Social Problems 51 (1): 43–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Neill, William L. 1969. When Everyone Was Brave: A History of Feminism in America. New York: Quadrangle/New York Times Book Company.Google Scholar
Patterson, Thomas E. 1994. Out of Order. New York: Vintage.Google Scholar
Polletta, Francesca. 1999. ‘Free Spaces’ in Collective Action. Theory and Society 28 (1): 1–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polletta, Francesca. 2002. Freedom is an Endless Meeting: Democracy in American Social Movements. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polletta, Francesca., and Jasper, James M.. 2001. Collective Identity and Social Movements. Annual Review of Sociology 27: 283–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, Robert D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Quindlen, Anna. 1994. “Public & Private: And Now, Babe Feminism.” New York Times, January 19: A21.Google Scholar
Ramirez, Anthony. 2008. “A War Protest Falls Short in Manhattan.” New York Times, March 23: A23.Google Scholar
Rochford, E. Burke Jr. 1989. Factionalism, Group Defection, and Schism in the Hare Krishna Movement. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 28 (2): 162–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rojas, Fabio. 2007. From Black Power to Black Studies: How a Radical Social Movement Became an Academic Discipline. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose-Jensen, Sarah. 2008. Interview with authors, February 14. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Rosenfeld, Megan. 2000. “A Force Of Nurture Readies For Battle; Born on Labor Day, Gun Control Rally Is Set for Mother's Day.” Washington Post, March 23: C1.Google Scholar
Roth, Benita. 2004. Separate Roads to Feminism: Black, Chicana, and White Feminist Movements in America's Second Wave. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rowe-Finkbeiner, Kristin. 2004. The F Word: Feminism in Jeopardy. Emeryville, CA: Seal Press.Google Scholar
Schnittker, Jason, Freese, Jeremy, and Powell, Brian. 2003. Who Are Feminists and What Do They Believe? The Role of Generations. American Sociological Review 68 (4): 607–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schott, Linda K. 1997. Reconstructing Women's Thoughts: The Women's International League for Peace and Freedom Before World War II. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, Anne Firor. 1991. Natural Allies: Women's Associations in American History. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
Scott, Joan Wallach. 1996. Only Paradoxes to Offer: French Feminists and the Rights of Man. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shames, Shauna. 2003. The ‘Un-Candidates’: Gender and Outsider Signals in Women's Political Advertisements. Women & Politics 25 (1–2): 115–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheehan, Cindy. 2006. Peace Mom: A Mother's Journey through Heartache to Activism. New York: Atria Books.Google Scholar
Siegel, Deborah L. 1997. The Legacy of the Personal: Generating Theory in Feminism's Third Wave. Hypatia 12 (3): 46–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skocpol, Theda. 1992. Protecting Soldiers and Mothers. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skocpol, Theda. 1999. Advocates without Members: The Recent Transformation of American Civic Life. In Civic Engagement in American Democracy, ed. Skocpol, Theda and Fiorina, Morris P.. Washington: Brookings Institution Press; and New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 461–509.Google Scholar
Skocpol, Theda. 2003. Diminished Democracy: From Membership to Management in American Civic Life. Noman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Snow, David A., Rochford, E. Burke Jr., Worden, Steven K., and Benford, Robert D.. 1986. Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation. American Sociological Review 51 (4): 464–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snow, David A., and Benford, Robert D.. 1992. Master Frames and Cycles of Protest. In Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, ed. Morris, Aldon D. and Mueller, Carole McClurg. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 133–55.Google Scholar
Snyder, R. Claire. 2008. What is Third-Wave Feminism? A New Directions Essay. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 34 (1): 175–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soule, Sarah A. 1997. The Student Divestment Movement in the United States and Tactical Diffusion: The Shantytown Protest. Social Forces 75 (3): 855–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Soule, Sarah A., and King, Brayden G. 2008. Competition and Resource Partitioning in Three Social Movement Industries. American Journal of Sociology 113 (6): 1568–1610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Special Report with Hume, Brit. 2000. Transcript available through Lexis-Nexis, May 11.Google Scholar
Staggenborg, Suzanne, and Taylor, Verta. 2005. Whatever Happened to the Women's Movement? Mobilization 10 (1): 37–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Starhawk. 2002. “Code Pink: Call for a Women's Pre-Emptive Strike for Peace.” The Michigan Citizen 24 (50): B10.Google Scholar
Strang, David, and Soule, Sarah A.. 1998. Diffusion in Organizations and Social Movements: From Hybrid Corn to Poison Pills. Annual Review of Sociology 24: 265–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strolovitch, Dara Z. 2007. Affirmative Advocacy: Race, Class, and Gender in Interest Group Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stuttaford, Andrew. 2000. Moms Away: The New Brand of Gun Nut. National Review, June 5. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_10_52/ai_62241931, accessed August 20, 2009.Google Scholar
Swart, William J. 1995. The League of Nations and the Irish Question: Master Frames, Cycles of Protest, and ‘Master Frame Alignment.’ Sociological Quarterly 36 (3): 465–481.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swerdlow, Amy. 1993. Women Strike for Peace. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Tarrow, Sidney. 1998. Power in Movement. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tarrow, Sidney. 1992. Mentalities, Political Cultures, and Collective Action Frames: Constructing Meaning Through Action. In Frontiers in Social Movement Theory, ed. Morris, Aldon D. and Mueller, Carole McClurg, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 174–202.Google Scholar
Thomas, Sue. 2008. ‘Backlash’ and Its Utility to Political Scientists. Politics and Gender 4 (4): 615–652.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toner, Robin. 2000. “Mothers Rally to Assail Gun Violence.” New York Times, May 15. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE4DA103BF936A25756C0A9669C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all, accessed August 20, 2009.Google Scholar
Urbina, Ian. 2009. “Beyond Beltway, Health Debate Turns Hostile.” New York Times, August 7. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/08/us/politics/08townhall.html?_r=1&hp, accessed August 20, 2009.Google Scholar
U.S. Bureau of the Census. 2003. Educational Attainment: 2000. Washington, DC. http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-24.pdf, accessed August 20, 2009.Google Scholar
Waters, Melanie. 2007. Sexing it Up? Women, Pornography and Third Wave Feminism. In Third Wave Feminism: A Critical Exploration, ed. Gills, Stephanie, Howie, Gillian, and Munford, Rebecca. Houndsmills: Palgrave Macmillian, 250–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westheider, James E. 2008. The African American Experience in Vietnam: Brothers in Arms. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.Google Scholar
Whittier, Nancy. 1997. Political Generations, Micro-Cohorts, and the Transformation of Social Movements. American Sociological Review 62 (5): 760–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, Leonard. 1998. Gender, Political Advertising, and the ‘Air Wars.’ In Women & Elective Office, ed. Thomas, Sue and Wilcox, Clyde. New York: Oxford University Press, 38–55.Google Scholar
Withers, Josephine. 1988. The Guerrilla Girls. Feminist Studies 14 (2): 284–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Witt, Linda, Paget, Karen M., and Matthews, Glenna. 1994. Running as a Women: Gender and Power in American Politics. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Woolsey, Lynn. 2008. Interview with authors, July 31. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
Wright, Ann, and Dixon, Susan. 2008. Dissent: Voices of Conscience. Kihei, HI: Koa Books.Google Scholar