Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-g4j75 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-13T14:26:44.339Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Taxing the Poor: Incarceration, Poverty Governance, and the Seizure of Family Resources

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 September 2015

Mary Fainsod Katzenstein  and
Maureen R. Waller
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In the last decades, the American state has radically enlarged the array of policy instruments utilized in today’s governance of the poor. Most recently, through a process of outright “seizure,” the state now exacts revenue from low-income families, partners, and friends of those individuals who in very large numbers cycle in and out of the nation’s courts, jails, and prisons. In an analysis of legislation, judicial cases, policy regulations, blog, chat-line postings, and survey data, we explore this new form of taxation. In doing so, we endeavor to meet two objectives: The first is to document policies which pressure individuals (mostly men) entangled in the court and prison systems to rely on family members and others (mostly women) who serve as the safety net of last resort. Our second objective is to give voice to an argument not yet well explored in the sizeable incarceration literature: that the government is seizing resources from low-income families to help finance the state’s own coffers, including the institutions of the carceral state itself. Until now, no form of poverty governance has been depicted as so baldly drawing on family financial support under the pressure of punishment to extract cash resources from the poor. This practice of seizure constitutes the very inversion of welfare for the poor. Instead of serving as a source of support and protection for poor families, the state saps resources from indigent families of loved ones in the criminal justice system in order to fund the state’s project of poverty governance.

Type
Articles
Information
Perspectives on Politics , Volume 13 , Issue 3 , September 2015 , pp. 638 - 656
Copyright
Copyright © American Political Science Association 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

ACLU and Columbia Legal Services. 2014. “Modern-Day Debtors’ Prisons: The Way Court-Imposed Debts Punish People for Being Poor.” Seattle,WA. https://www.aclu.org/criminal-law-reform/modern-day-debtors-prisons-report-exposes-how-court-imposed-debts-punish-people, accessed March 30, 2014.Google Scholar
ACLU. 2010. “‘In for a Penny: The Rise of America’s New Debtors’ Prisons.” NY: NY. October.Google Scholar
Balko, Radley. 2014. “How Municipalities in St. Louis County, Mo., Profit from Poverty.” Washington Post, September 3. http://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-watch/wp/2014/09/03/how-st-louis-county-missouri-profits-from-poverty/, accessed September 9, 2014.Google Scholar
Bannon, Alicia, Nagrecha, Mitali, and Diller, Rebekah. 2010. Criminal Justice Debt: A Barrier to Reentry. New York: Brennan Center for Justice.Google Scholar
Beckett, Katherine, and Harris, Alexes. 2011. “On Cash and Conviction: Money Sanctions as Misguided Policy.” Criminology & Public Policy 10(3): 509–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beckett, Katherine, and Herbert, Steve. 2010. Banished: The New Social Control in Urban America. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Boggess, Jacquelyn, Price, Anne, and Rodriguez, Nino. 2014. “What We Want to Give Our Kids: How Child Support Debt Can Diminish Wealth-Building Opportunities for Struggling Black Families.” Madison, WI: Center for Family Policy and Practice and Insight Center for Community Economic Development.Google Scholar
Braman, Donald. 2004. Doing Time on the Outside: Incarceration and Family Life in Urban America. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cacho, Mark S. 2003. “Prison and Jail Law Libraries: Where Do We Go from Here? “American Correctional Association Inc.: Free Library. http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Prison+and+jail+law+libraries%3A+where+do+we+go+from+here%3F-a0121937553, accessed January 14, 2015.Google Scholar
California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation, Office of Victim and Survivors Rights and Services. 2014. “How Does a Victim Collect on the Restitution Order from an Inmate or a Parolee?” http://www.cdcr.ca.gov/victim_services/restitution_collections.html, accessed April 1, 2014.Google Scholar
Cammett, Ann. 2012–2013. “Shadow Citizens: Felony Disenfranchisement and the Criminalization of Debt.” 117 Penn St. L. Rev 349 2012–2013.Google Scholar
Carmon, Irin. 2015. “How Falling Behind on Child Support Can End in Jail.” April 9, http://www.msnbc.com/msnbc/how-falling-behind-child-support-can-end-jail, accessed May 11, 2015.Google Scholar
Center for Law and Social Policy. 2011. “Every Door Closed: Facts about Parents with Criminal Records.” In, Child Support Orders and the Incarceration of Noncustodial Parents, Meyer, Daniel R. and Warren, Emily, December, 2. Institute for Research on Poverty and School of Social Work, University of Wisconsin-Madison.Google Scholar
“Central Pa. County Mulls Using Prison Inmate Accounts to Pay Restitution, Fees, Fines Owed.” 2013. Daily Journal, September 12. http://triblive.com/state/pennsylvania/4693666-74/county-accounts-prison?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+triblivePennsylvania+%28Pennsylvania+Stories%29#axzz2nhvqds9C, accessed April 15, 2014.Google Scholar
Collins, Jane L. and Mayer, Victoria. 2010. Both Hands Tied: Welfare Reform and the Race to the Bottom of the Low-Wage Labor Market. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
“Commissioner Fischer Lowers Phone Charges.” 2010. Pro Se 20(1): 4.Google Scholar
Congressional Research Service. 2012. “Child Support Enforcement: Incarceration as the Last Resort Penalty for Nonpayment of Support.” A Report Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress by Carmen Solomon-Fears, Alison M. Smith and Carla Berry, March 6.Google Scholar
Cook, Foster. 2014. “The Burden of Criminal Justice Debt in Alabama: 2014 Participant Self-Report Survey.” http://media.al.com/opinion/other/The%20Burden%20of%20Criminal%20Justice%20Debt%20in%20Alabama-%20Full%20Report.pdf, accessed February 12, 2015.Google Scholar
Cowan, Sarah and Reich, Adam. 2013. “Inequality in Involuntary Servitude: Wage Variation Among State Prison Inmates.” Presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, New York, NY, August 9. http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p650099_index.html, accessed Jan. 7, 2014.Google Scholar
Dannenberg, John E. 2011. “Nationwide PLN Survey Examines Prison Phone Contracts, Kickbacks.” Prison Legal News 1: 4–5.Google Scholar
Downes, David and Hansen, Kristine. 2006. “Welfare and Punishment: The Relationship between Welfare Spending and Imprisonment.” Briefing 2, November, Crime and Society Foundation.Google Scholar
Edsall, Thomas B. 2014. “The Expanding World of Poverty Capitalism.” New York Times, August 26.Google Scholar
Ehrenfreund, Max. 2014. “How Segregation Led to Speed Traps, Traffic Tickets, and Distrust outside St. Louis.” Wonkblog, Washington Post, November 26.Google Scholar
Evans, Douglas N. 2014. “The Debt Penalty: Exposing the Financial Barriers to Offender Reintegration.” Research & Evaluation Center, John Jay College of Criminal Justice.Google Scholar
Ewald, Alec. 2012. “Collateral Consequences in the American States.” 93(1) Social Science Quarterly 211–247 March.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ewald, Alec. 2011. “Collateral Consequences and the Perils of Categorical Ambiguity.” In Law as Punishment / Law as Regulation, ed. Sarat, Austin, Douglas, Lawrence, and Merrill Umphrey, Martha. Redwood City: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Ewald, Alec 2002. “‘Civil Death’: The Ideological Paradox of Criminal Disenfranchisement Law in the United States.” Wisconsin Law Review. 5: 1045–1138.Google Scholar
Ewald, Alec C. and Rottinghaus, Brandon. 2009. Criminal Disenfranchisement in an International Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fagan, Jeffrey and Davies, Garth. 2000–2001. “Street Stops and Broken Windows: Terry, Race, and Disorder in New York City.” 28 Fordham Urb. L. J. 457.Google Scholar
Federal Bureau of Prisons’ Inmate Financial Responsibility Program. 2000. Report Number I-2000-023, September. http://www.justice.gov/oig/reports/BOP/e0023/intro.htm, accessed March 29, 2014.Google Scholar
Fergus, Devin. Forthcoming. Land of the Fee. [Oxford: city]: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Florida Senate. 2015. Bill Analysis and Fiscal Impact Statement. SB 540. March.Google Scholar
Fording, Richard C. Schram, Sanford F., and Soss, Joe. 2013. “Do Welfare Sanctions Help or Hurt the Poor? Estimating the Causal Effect of Sanctioning on Client Earnings.” Social Service Review 87(4): 641–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gambos, Suzanne. 2013. “FCC Slashes What Prisoners Pay for Phone Calls.” Associated Press, USA Today, August 9.Google Scholar
Glaze, Lauren E. and Maruschak, Laura M.. 2008. “Parents in Prison and their Minor Children.” U.S. Bur. Justice Stat. Spec. Rep., U.S. Dep. Justice, Washington, DC. http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=823.Google Scholar
Goffman, Alice. 2009. “On the Run: Wanted Men in a Philadelphia Ghetto.” American Sociological Review 74: 339–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goffman, Alice. 2014. On the Run: Fugitive Life in an American City. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottschalk, Marie. 2014. Caught: Race, Neoliberalism, and the Future of the Carceral State and American Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Gustafson, Kaaryn. 2009. “The Criminalization of Poverty.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 99, 3, 643–716.Google Scholar
Hacker, Jacob S. 2008. The Great Risk Shift: The New Economic Insecurity and the Decline of the American Dream. Rev ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Harcourt, Bernard. 2011. The Illusion of Free Markets: Punishment and the Myth of Natural Order. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, Alexes, Evans, Heather, and Beckett, Katherine. 2010. “Drawing Blood from Stones: Monetary Sanctions, Punishment and Inequality in the Contemporary United States.” American Journal of Sociology 115, 6, 1753–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, Mark Lamont. 2012. “Inmates and Families Pay Price of Costly Phone Calls.” Huffington Post Live, Dec. 17. http://live.huffingtonpost.com/r/segment/costly-prison-phone-calls-/50c0e96102a76029e300005f.Google Scholar
“Inmates Pay for Jail Stay; Proposal Fails.” 2010. California News, April 20. http://abclocal.go.com/kfsn/story?section=news/state&id=7397434, accessed April 8, 2014.Google Scholar
“Is It Fair and Legal for Inmates to Foot Their Room and Board?” 2004. Christian Science Monitor, July 21. http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0721/p02s01-usju.html/(page)/2.Google Scholar
Johnson, Kevin. 2010. “Reports: Some States Charge Poor for Public Defenders.” USA TODAY, October 3.Google Scholar
Katz, Michael B. 2013. The Undeserving Poor: America’s Enduring Confrontation with Poverty. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Katzenstein, Mary Fainsod. 2012. “Neoliberalism, Race, and the American Welfare State: A Discussion of Joe Soss, Richard C. Fording, and Sanford F. Schram’s Disciplining the Poor: Neoliberal Paternalism and the Persistent Power of Race.” Perspectives on Politics 10(4): 989–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Katzenstein, Mary Fainsod, and Nagrecha, Mitali. 2011. “A New Punishment Regime.” Policy Essay: Monetary Sanctions as Misguided Policy. Criminology and Public Policy 10(3): 555–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Desmond. 1999. In the Name of Liberalism: Illiberal Social Policy in the USA and Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohler-Hausmann, Julilly. 2010. “Forging a Punishing State: The Punitive Turn in United States Criminal and Social Policy.” Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign.Google Scholar
Kriminal Forsorgen. n.d. “Prison and Probation Service, Denmark.” http://www.krimprod.dk/In-English-1486.aspx.Google Scholar
Kukorowski, Drew, Wagner, Peter and Sakala, Leah. 2014. “Please Deposit all of your Money: kickbacks, Rates, and Hidden Fees in the Jail Phone Industry.” http://www.prisonpolicy.org/phones/pleasedeposit.html. accessed February 1, 2015.Google Scholar
Lane, Stephanie. N.d. “The New Bill Collector Tactic: Jail Time.” http://www.nolo.com/legal-encyclopedia/the-new-bill-collector-tactic-jail-time.html, accessed February 1, 2015.Google Scholar
Larson, Doran. 2013. “Why Scandinavian Prisons Are Superior.” The Atlantic, September, 14.Google Scholar
Lerman, Amy E., and Weaver, Vesla M.. 2014. Arresting Citizenship: The Democratic Consequences of American Crime Control. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lipsky, Michael. 2010. “Street Level Bureaucrats.” United States Studies Centre, University of Sydney, Australia. February 24. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZX1livgPspA&playnext=1&list=watch?v=ZX1livgPspA&playnext=1&list=PLC3C60B4C900C79CD&feature=results video, accessed August 5, 2012.Google Scholar
Mai-Duc, Christine. 2013. “FCC to Consider Costs of Limiting Prison Phone Calls.” Los Angeles Times, August 8.Google Scholar
Mahon, , Ed. 2013. “Other Counties Inform York County’s Decision on Inmate Account Deductions.” Daily Record/Sunday News, October 6. http://www.ydr.com/local/ci_24242628/other-counties-inform-york-countys-decision-inmate-account, accessed April 8, 2014.Google Scholar
Markowitz, Eric. 2015. “Video Chats Are Replacing In-Person Jail Visits, While One Tech Company Profits.” International Business Times, April 8. http://www.ibtimes.com/video-chats-are-replacing-person-jail-visits-while-one-tech-company-profits-1873918, accessed May 14, 2015.Google Scholar
Massachusetts Department of Corrections. 2001. “A Statistical Description of Releases from Institutions and the Jurisdiction of the Massachusetts Department of Correction during 2000.” November. http://www.mass.gov/eopss/docs/doc/research-reports/release-reports/rel00.pdf (accessed June 16, 2015).Google Scholar
Mead, Lawrence M. 2012. “Neoliberalism, Race and the American Welfare State; A Discussion of Joe Soss, Richard C. Fording, and Sanford F. Schram’s Disciplining the Poor: Neoliberal Paternalism and the Persistent Power of Race.” Perspectives on Politics 10(4): 979–981.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mead, Lawrence M 2011. Expanding Work Programs for Poor Men. Washington, D.C: American Enterprise Institute.Google Scholar
Mead, Lawrence M, 1997. The New Paternalism: Supervisory Approaches to Poverty. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.Google Scholar
Mettler, Suzanne. 2011. The Submerged State: How Invisible Government Policies Underlie American Democracy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, David R., and Warren, Emily. 2011. “Child Support Orders and the Incarceration of Non-Custodial Parents.” December. Institute for Research on Poverty and School of Social Work, University of Wisconsin, Madison.Google Scholar
Miletich, Steve. 1997. “Inmates Fight a State Bite on their Gifts.” Prison Legal News, April 7. https://www.prisonlegalnews.org/242_displayNews.aspx, accessed April 17, 2014.Google Scholar
Miller, Daniel P., and Mincy, Ronald B.. 2012. “Falling Further Behind? Child Support Arrears and Fathers’ Labor Force Participation.” Social Service Review 86(4): 604–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, Lisa L. 2008. The Perils of Federalism: Race, Poverty and the Politics of Crime Control. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagrecha, Mitali and Katzenstein, Mary Fainsod. 2015. When All Else Fails, Fining the Family; First Person Accounts of Criminal Justice Debt. Center For Community Alternatives. Syracuse, New York. http://www.communityalternatives.org/pdf/Criminal-Justice-Debt.pdf accessed July 28, 2015.Google Scholar
Natapoff, Alexandra. 2011–2012. “Misdemeanors.” 85 S. Cal. L. Rev 1313.Google Scholar
Naseer, Rebecca L., and LaVigne, Nancy G.. 2006. “Family Support in the Prisoner Reentry Process: Expectations and Realities.” Journal of Offender and Rehabilitation 42(1): 93–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Center for Victims of Crime. 2011. “Collection from Inmates.” http://www.victimsofcrime.org/docs/restitution-toolkit/c15_collection-from-inmates.pdf?sfvrsn=2, accessed April 1, 2014.Google Scholar
“The New Debtors’ Prisons.” 2013. The Economist, November 16.Google Scholar
Noyes, Jennifer L., Cancian, Maria, and Cuesta, Laura. 2012. “Holding Child Support Orders of Incarcerated Payers in Abeyance: Final Evaluation Report.” September. Institute for Research on Poverty, University of Wisconsin-Madison.Google Scholar
Office of Justice Programs. Bureau of Justice Statistics 2004. “Bureau of Justice Statistics Survey of Inmates in State Correctional Facilities.” http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=dcdetail&iid=275 accessed March 31, 2014.Google Scholar
“Our View, Debt to Society.” 2009. Herald News, October 2. http://www.heraldnews.com/x1991996733/OUR-VIEW-Debt-to-society-10-02-09#ixzz2n8ExNrGT.Google Scholar
Petro, Lee G. 2013. “FCC Lowers Rates for Interstate Phone Calls from Jails and Prisons.” Vera Institute Blog, August 13. http://www.vera.org/blog/fcc-lowers-rates-interstate-phone-calls-jails-and-prisons.Google Scholar
Pew Research Center for People and the Press. 2012. “Partisan Polarization Surges in Bush, Obama Years,” Section 3, June 4. http://www.people-press.org/2012/06/04/section-3-values-about-economic-inequality-and-individual-opportunity/.Google Scholar
Pinaire, Brian, Heumann, Milton, and Bilotta, Laura. 2002. “Barred from the Vote: Public Attitudes Toward the Disenfranchisement of Felons.” Fordham Urban Law Journal 30: 5.Google Scholar
Piven, Frances Fox, and Cloward, Richard. 1971. Regulating the Poor. New York: Pantheon Books.Google Scholar
“Poor People Can Pay Twice After Committing A Crime.” 2014. WAMC Northeast Public Radio. http://wamc.org/post/poor-people-can-pay-twice-after-committing-crime, accessed May 25.Google Scholar
Prison Policy Initiative. 2014. “Dallas County Approves Video Visitation Contract.” November 12. http://www.prisonpolicy.org/blog/2014/11/11/dallas-approves/, accessed February 2.Google Scholar
Prison Policy Initiative. 2015. “Securus Ends Its Ban on In–Person Visits, Shifts Responsibility to Sheriffs.” Press Release, May 6.Google Scholar
Rabuy, Bernadette, and Wagner, Peter. 2015. “Screening Out Family Time: The For-Profit Video Visitation Industry in Prisons and Jails.” Prison Policy Initiative. http://www.prisonpolicy.org/visitation/report.html, accessed May 9, 2015.Google Scholar
Reutter, David M. 2009. “Florida DOC and Keefe Gouge Prisoners on Commissary Sales.” https://www.prisonlegalnews.org/21795_displayArticle.aspx, accessed April 8, 2014.Google Scholar
Roach, Janet 2014. “Fight over who should collect millions in unpaid court fines heats up.” WVEC.com, Hampton, Virginia. http://www.wvec.com/my-city/vabeach/Fight-over-who-should-collect-millions-in-unpaid-court-fines-heats-up-259850761.html, accessed May 25, 2014.Google Scholar
Roberts, Paula. 2001. “An Ounce of Prevention and a Pound of Cure: Developing State Policy on the Payment of Child Support Arrears by Low-Income Parents.” Washington, DC: Center for Law and Social Policy.Google Scholar
Rosen, Rebecca J. 2012. “Stupid and Unjust: The Highway Robbery of Prison Phone Rates.” The Atlantic, Dec. 4. http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/12/stupid-and-unjust-the-highway-robbery-of-prison-rates/265859/, accessed December 9, 2013.Google Scholar
Rosen, Rebecca J. 2013. “Finally, Prisoners and Their Families Won’t Have to Pay Crazy Phone Rates.” The Atlantic, August 12. http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/08/finally-prisoners-and-their-famlies-won’t-have-to-pay-crazy-phone-rates/278594, accessed December 15, 2013.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, Alan, and Weissman, Marsha. 2007. “Sentencing for Dollars: The Financial Consequences of a Criminal Conviction.” Syracuse, NY: Center for Community Alternatives, Justice Strategies.Google Scholar
Sacks, Glenn. 2007. “20 Years in Prison for Failing to Pay Child Support.” Blogger News Network, November 13. http://www.bloggernews.net/111673, accessed Dec. 17, 2013.Google Scholar
Sasso, Brendan. 2014. “Court Blocks FCC Bid to Lower Prison Phone Rates.” National Journal, January 13. http://www.nationaljournal.com/technology/court-blocks-fcc-bid-to-lower-prison-phone-rates-20140113, accessed, March 31, 2014.Google Scholar
Shapiro, Joseph. 2014. “As Court Fees Rise, the Poor Are Paying the Price.” All Things Considered, NPR, May 19.Google Scholar
Sorensen, Elaine, Sousa, Liliana, and Schaner, Simone. 2007. “Assessing Child Support Arrears in Nine Large States and the Nation.” The Urban Institute. http://www.urban.org/publications/1001242.html, accessed January 27, 2009.Google Scholar
Soss, Joe, Fording, Richard C., and Schram, Sanford F., 2011. Disciplining the Poor: Neoliberal Paternalism and The Persistent Power of Race. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
State ex. rel. Mickey Phillips v. Gwen Knox . 2001. Court of Appeals of Tennessee at Knoxville, August 30 session. http://michaelguth.com/knoxii.htm (accessed May 11, 2014).Google Scholar
State of New York, Department of Corrections and Community Supervision. 2013. “Collection & Repayment of Inmate Advances & Obligations No. 2788.” April 19.Google Scholar
Texas Family Code. N.d. Section 157.008. “Affirmative Defense to Motion for Enforcement of Child Support.” http://law.onecle.com/texas/family/157.008.00.html.Google Scholar
Thoennes, Nancy, 2002. “Child Support Profile: Massachusetts Incarcerated and Paroled Parents.” Center for Policy Research. http://cntrpolres.qwestoffice.net/reports/profile%20of%20CS%20among%20incarcerated%20&%20paroled%20parents.pdf.Google Scholar
Trimble, Mandie. 2014. “Ohio Inmate Fees Add Up, Private Companies and State Benefit.” NPR News 89.7, WOSU, March 18.Google Scholar
Turney, Kristin, Schnittker, Jason, and Wildeman, Christopher. 2012. “Those They Leave Behind: Paternal Incarceration and Maternal Instrumental Support.” Journal of Marriage and Family 74(5): 1149–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division. 2015. “Investigation of the Ferguson Police Department.” March 4.Google Scholar
Visher, Christy A. and Courtney, Shannon M. E.. 2006. Cleveland Prisoners’ Experiences Returning Home. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wacquant, Loïc. 2001. “Deadly Symbiosis: When Ghetto and Prison Meet and Mesh.” Punishment and Society 3(1): 95–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wacquant, Loïc. 2009. Punishing the Poor: The Neoliberal Government of Social Insecurity. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Wagner, Daniel. 2014. “Prison Bankers Cash in on Captive Customers.” The Center for Public Integrity. http://www.publicintegrity.org/2014/09/30/15761/prison-bankers-cash-captive-customers, accessed December 6, 2014.Google Scholar
Washingjton State, Department of Corrections. N.d. “Prison Life-Trust Account.” RCW 72.09.480, http://www.doc.wa.gov/family/offenderlife/offendertrustaccount.asp, accessed March 31, 2014.Google Scholar
Weisburd, David, Einat, Tomer, and Kowalski, Matt. 2008. “The Miracle of the Cells: An Experimental Study of Interventions to Increase Payment of Court-Ordered Financial Obligations.” Criminology and Public Policy 7(1): 9–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, Micah. 2013. “Financial Conflicts of Interest and the Funding of New Orleans’ Criminal Courts.” California Law Review101 Calif L. Rev. 521.Google Scholar
Western, Bruce, Braga, Anthony, David, Jaclyn, and Sirois, Catherine. 2014. “Leaving Prison as a Transition to Poverty.” Unpublished manuscript, Harvard University.Google Scholar
Bearden v. Georgia 461 U. S. 660. 1983.Google Scholar
Byrd v. Goord United States District Court, S. D. 2007. September 26. https://casetext.com/case/byrd-v-goord-2 accessed June 21, 2015.Google Scholar
“Inmate Welfare Fund.” Grand Jury of Orange County. California, 1999–2000, http://www.ocgrandjury.org/pdfs/GJInmate.pdf, accessed January 18, 2015.Google Scholar
“Matter of Walton v. New York State Department of Correctional Services.” 2009. New York State Law Reporting Journal November 23. New York State Court of Appeals. http://www.courts.state.ny.us/Reporter/3dseries/2009/2009_08665.htm accessed June 21, 2015.Google Scholar
State ex. rel. Mickey Phillips v. Gwen Knox. 2001. Court of Appeals of Tennessee at Knoxville, August 30 session. http://michaelguth.com/knoxii.htm (accessed May 11, 2014). Google Scholar
Bearden v. Georgia 461 U. S. 660. 1983.Google Scholar
Byrd v. Goord United States District Court, S. D. 2007. September 26. https://casetext.com/case/byrd-v-goord-2 accessed June 21, 2015.Google Scholar
“Inmate Welfare Fund.” Grand Jury of Orange County. California, 1999–2000, http://www.ocgrandjury.org/pdfs/GJInmate.pdf, accessed January 18, 2015.Google Scholar
“Matter of Walton v. New York State Department of Correctional Services.” 2009. New York State Law Reporting Journal November 23. New York State Court of Appeals. http://www.courts.state.ny.us/Reporter/3dseries/2009/2009_08665.htm accessed June 21, 2015.Google Scholar
State ex. rel. Mickey Phillips v. Gwen Knox. 2001. Court of Appeals of Tennessee at Knoxville, August 30 session. http://michaelguth.com/knoxii.htm (accessed May 11, 2014). Google Scholar