Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T16:48:43.012Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Enhancing genetic virtue: A project for twenty-first century humanity?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 May 2016

Mark Walker*
Affiliation:
Richard L. Hedden Chair of Advanced Philosophical Studies, Department of Philosophy, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003-8001 mwalker@nmsu.edu
Get access

Abstract

The Genetic Virtue Project (GVP) is a proposed interdisciplinary effort between philosophers, psychologists and geneticists to discover and enhance human ethics using biotechnology genetic correlates of virtuous behavior. The empirical plausibility that virtues have biological correlates is based on the claims that (a) virtues are a subset of personality, specifically, personality traits conceived of as “enduring behaviors,” and (b) that there is ample evidence that personality traits have a genetic basis. The moral necessity to use the GVP for moral enhancement is based on the claims that we should eliminate evil (as understood generically, not religiously), as some evil is a function of human nature. The GVP is defended against several ethical and political criticisms.

Type
Research Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Politics and the Life Sciences 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1.Sumner, Wayne, “Two theories of the good,” in The Good Life and the Human Good, Frankel Paul, E., Miller, F. D. Jr., and Paul, J., eds. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1992).Google Scholar
2.Wright, Robert, The Moral Animal (New York: Pantheon, 1994).Google Scholar
3.Douglas, Thomas, “Moral enhancement,” Journal of Applied Philosophy 2008, 25(3): 228245.Google Scholar
4.Persson, Ingmar and Savulescu, Julian, “The perils of cognitive enhancement and the urgent imperative to enhance the moral character of humanity,” Journal of Applied Philosophy 2008, 25(3): 162177.Google Scholar
5.Wasserman, David, “Is there value in identifying individual genetic predispositions to violence?” Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics 2004, 32: 2433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
6.Plato, , The Republic.Google Scholar
7.Fukuyama, Francis, Our Posthuman Future (New York: Picador, 2002).Google Scholar
8.Habermas, Jürgen, The Future of Human Nature, Beister, Hella and Rehg, William, trans., (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2003).Google Scholar
9.Kass, Leon, “The wisdom of repugnance,” in The Ethics of Human Cloning (Washington, DC: The AEI Press, 1998).Google Scholar
10.CBC Radio News, Toronto (October, 2003).Google Scholar
11.United Nations, Human Development Report, 2008, http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/.Google Scholar
12.Scheper-Hughes, Nancy and Bourgois, Philipe, eds., Violence in War and Peace: An Anthology (Maiden, MA: Blackwell, 2004).Google Scholar
13.Hegel, Frederick, The Philosophy of History, Sibree, J., trans. (New York: Dover, 1956), p. 35.Google Scholar
14.Keeley, Lawrence, War Before Civilization (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).Google Scholar
15.Kant, Immanuel, Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason, Wood, A. and di Giovanni, G., trans. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 5657.Google Scholar
16.Scheper-Hughes, and Bourgois, .Google Scholar
17.Keeley, .Google Scholar
18.Louden, Robert, “On some vices of virtue ethics,” in Virtue Ethics, Crisp, R. and Slote, M., eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997).Google Scholar
19.Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Ostwald, M., trans. (Indianapolis: Liberal Arts Press, 1962), p. 1105a.Google Scholar
20.Pervin, Lawerence and John, Oliver, Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research (New York: Guilford, 1999).Google Scholar
21.Plomin, Robert et al., Behavioural Genetics, 4th ed. (New York: Freeman, 2001), p. 235.Google Scholar
22.Cattell, Raymond, The Inheritance of Personality and Ability (New York: Academic Press, 1982).Google Scholar
23.Eaves, Lindon, Eysenck, Hans, and Martin, Nicholas, Genes, Culture, and Personality: An Empirical Approach (London: Academic Press, 1989).Google Scholar
24.Jang, Kerry et al., “Heritability of the Big Five dimensions and their facets: A twin study,” journal of Personality 1996, 64:577591.Google Scholar
25.Jang, Kerry et al., “Heritability of facet-level traits in a cross-cultural twin sample: Support for the hierarchy model of personality,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1998, 74:15561565.Google Scholar
26.Loehlin, John, Genes and Environment in Personality Development (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1992).Google Scholar
27.Loehlin, John, Willerman, Lee, and Horn, Joseph, “Personality resemblances in adoptive families: A 10-year follow-up,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1987, 42:10891099.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
28.Aristotle, p. 1104a.Google Scholar
29.Aristotle, p. 1127a.Google Scholar
30.Aristotle, p. 1127b.Google Scholar
31.Aristotle, p. 1127b.Google Scholar
32.Slote, Michael, “Virtue ethics,” in The Blackwell Guide to Ethical Theory, LaFollette, H., ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), pp. 325347.Google Scholar
33.Aristotle, p.1129a.Google Scholar
34.Noddings, Nel, Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1984).Google Scholar
35.Slote, , p. 337.Google Scholar
36.McDowell, John, “Virtue and reason,” Monist 1979, 62: 331–50.Google Scholar
37.MacIntyre, Alasdair, After Virtue (London: Duckworth, 1981).Google Scholar
38.Plomin, et al., p. 237.Google Scholar
39.Zuckerman, Marvin, Psychobiology of Personality (New York: Cambridge, 2005).Google Scholar
40.Stock, Gregory, Redesigning Humans (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2002).Google Scholar
41.Lewis, Suzanne, “Human artificial chromosomes: emerging from concept to reality in biomedicine,” Clinical Genetics 2001, 59 (1): 1516.Google Scholar
42.Ross, Lee and Nisbett, Richard, The Person and the Situation: Perspectives of Social Psychology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991).Google Scholar
43.Funder, David and Ozer, Daniel, eds., Pieces of the Personality Puzzle: Readings in Theory and Research, 3rd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004).Google Scholar
44.Funder, and Ozer, .Google Scholar
45.Annas, Julia, “Virtue ethics and social psychology,” A Priori 2003, 2:2059.Google Scholar
46.Athanassoulis, Nafsika, “A response to Harman: Virtue ethics and character traits,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, New Series 2000, 100:215221.Google Scholar
47.Doris, John, “Persons, situations, and virtue ethics,” Nous 1998, 32(4): 504–30.Google Scholar
48.Doris, John, Lack of Character: Personality and Moral Behaviour (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).Google Scholar
49.Harman, Gilbert, “Moral philosophy meets social psychology: Virtue ethics and the fundamental attribution error,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society New Series 1989, 89:316–31.Google Scholar
50.Harman, Gilbert, “Virtue ethics without character traits,” in Fact and Value, Byrne, A., Stalnaker, R., and Wedgwood, R., eds. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001), pp. 117–27.Google Scholar
51.Harman, Gilbert, “No character or personality,” Business Ethics Quarterly 2003, 13: 8794.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
52.Kamtekar, Rachana, “Situationism and virtue ethics on the content of our character,” Ethics 2004, 114:458491.Google Scholar
53.Watson, Gary, “On the primacy of character,” in Identity, Character, and Morality: Essays in Moral Psychology, Flanagan, O. and Rorty, A., eds. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990).Google Scholar
54.Sorensen, Daniel and Gianola, Daniel, Likelihood, Bayesian, and MCMC Methods in Quantitative Genetics (New York: Springer-Verlag, 2002).Google Scholar
55.Ebstein, Richard, et al., “Dopamine D4 receptor (D4DR) exon III polymorphism associated with the human personality trait of novelty seeking,” Nature Genetics 1995, 325:783–87.Google Scholar
56.Benjamin, Jonathan, et al., “Population and familial association between the D4 dopamine receptor gene and measures of novelty seeking,” Nature Genetics 1996, 12:8184.Google Scholar
57.Stock, .Google Scholar
58.Gintis, Herbert, Game Theory Evolving (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000).Google Scholar
59.Menzel, Emil, “A group of young chimpanzees in a one-acre field: Leadership and communication,” in Behavior of nonhuman primates, Schrier, A. M. & Stollnitze, F., eds. (New York: Academic Press, 1974), pp. 83153.Google Scholar
60.Grove, William et al., “Heritability of substance abuse and antisocial behaviour: A study of monozygotic twins reared apart,” Biological Psychiatry 1990, 27:12931304.Google Scholar
61.Loehlin, , Willerman, , and Horn, .Google Scholar
62.Niggs, Joel and Goldsmith, Hill, “Genetics of personality disorders: Perspectives from personality and psychopathology research,” Psychological Bulletin 1994, 115:346380.Google Scholar
63.De Waal, Frans, Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), p. 97Google Scholar
64.Cosmides, Leda, “The logic of social exchange: Has nature shaped how humans reason? Studies with the Wason selection task,” Cognition 1989, 31:187276.Google Scholar
65.Tooby, John and Cosmides, Leda, “The past explains the present,” Ethology and Sociobiology 1990, 11:375424.Google Scholar
66.Cosmides, Leda and Tooby, John, “Cognitive adaptations for social exchange,” in The Adapted Mind, Barkow, J. H., Cosmides, L., and Tooby, J. H., eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992), pp. 163228.Google Scholar
67.Cosmides, and Tooby, , p. 181.Google Scholar
68.Miller, Geoffrey, “How to keep our meta-theories adaptive: Beyond Cosmides, Tooby and Lakatos,” Psychological Inquiry, 11:4246.Google Scholar
69.de Waal, Frans and Lanting, Frans, Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997).Google Scholar
70.Hamilton, William, “The genetical evolution of social behaviour,” journal of Theoretical Biology 1964, 7:152.Google Scholar
71.Trivers, Robert, “The evolution of reciprocal altruism,” Quarterly Review of Biology 1971, 46:3557.Google Scholar
72.Goldberg, Lewis, “An alternative description of personality: The Big Five factor structure,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1990, 59:12161229.Google Scholar
73.Jang, et al., 1996.Google Scholar
74.Jang, et al., 1998.Google Scholar
75.MacIntyre, .Google Scholar
76.Kant, Immanuel, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Gregor, M. trans. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).Google Scholar
77.Kant, Immanuel, The Metaphysics of Morals, Gregor, M., trans. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991).Google Scholar
78.Anscombe, Gertrude, “Modern moral philosophy,” Philosophy 1958, 33:119.Google Scholar
79.Statman, Daniel, Virtue Ethics: A Critical Reader (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Press, 1997), pp. 23.Google Scholar
80.Schneewind, Jerome, “The misfortunes of virtue,” Ethics 1990, 101:4263.Google Scholar
81.Frankena, William K., Ethics, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973), pp. 6566.Google Scholar
82.Trianosky, Gregory, “What is virtue ethics all about?” American Philosophical Quarterly 1990:27.Google Scholar
83.Watson, Gary, “On the primacy of character,” in Virtue Ethics: A Critical Reader, Statman, D., ed. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Press, 1997), pp. 5681.Google Scholar
84.Louden, R.Google Scholar
85.O'Neill, Onora, “Kant's virtues,” in How Should We Live? Crisped, R. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 7798.Google Scholar
86.Hurka, Thomas, Virtue, Vice, and Value (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 3.Google Scholar
87.MacIntrye, , 1981.Google Scholar
88.Noddings, .Google Scholar
89.Slote, .Google Scholar
90.Foot, Philippa, Virtue and Vices and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978).Google Scholar
91.Nietzsche, Friedrich, Beyond Good and Evil, Hollingdale, R. J., trans. (New York: Penguin Books, 1973), sec. 227.Google Scholar
92.Nietzsche, , sec. 284.Google Scholar
93.Solomon, Robert and Higgins, Kathleen, What Nietzsche Really Said (New York: Schocken Books, 2000), p. 183.Google Scholar
94.Plato, , The Laws, p. 844e.Google Scholar
95.Plato, , Laches, p. 190e, pp. 46.Google Scholar
96.Aristotle, p. 1115b, pp. 2432.Google Scholar
97.Bentham, Jeremy, Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Harrison, W., ed., (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1949), p. 246.Google Scholar
98.Driver, Julia, “The virtues and human nature,” in How Should One Live? Crisp, R., ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 122.Google Scholar
99.Aristotle, p. 1105a.Google Scholar
100.Aristotle, p. 1103a, pp. 2326.Google Scholar
101.Stock, .Google Scholar
102.Wolf, Susan, “Moral saints,” The Journal of Philosophy 1982, 79(8): 419439.Google Scholar
103.Rawls, John, Political Liberalism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993).Google Scholar
104.Glover, Jonathan, Humanity: A Moral History of the Twentieth Century (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000).Google Scholar
105.MacIntrye, , 1981.Google Scholar
106.Macintyre, Alasdair, Whose Justice? Which Rationality? (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1988).Google Scholar
107.MacIntyre, Alasdair, Dependent Rational Animals: Why Human Beings Need the Virtues (Chicago: Open Court, 1999).Google Scholar
108.MacIntryre, , 1981.Google Scholar
109.MacIntyre, , 1981, p. 263.Google Scholar
110.Agar, Nicholas, Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
111.Walker, Mark, “Ship of fools: Why transhumanism is the best bet to prevent the extinction of civilization,” The Global Spiral February 2009, 9(9), http://www.metanexus.net.Google Scholar
112.Gandhi, Mohatma, An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments With Truth (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993).Google Scholar
113.Glover, .Google Scholar
114.Dragger, Richard, Civic Virtues: Rights, Citizenship, and Republican Liberalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).Google Scholar
115.Galston, William, Liberal Purposes: Goods, Virtues, and Diversity in the Liberal State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).Google Scholar
116.Spragens, Thomas Jr., Civic Liberalism: Reflections on Our Democratic Ideals (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1999).Google Scholar
117.Macedo, Stephen, Liberal Virtues: Citizenship, Virtue, and Community in Liberal Constitutionalism (Oxford: Clarendon-Oxford University Press, 1990).Google Scholar