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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 27 May 2014
Tracking the elusive Indo-European has been a favourite sport of archaeologists and philologists ever since the days of the brothers Grimm, and surely some share of their power of telling fascinating fairy stories must have descended on their philological and archaeological successors.
Some authorities have tried to associate the spread of Indo-European languages with that of cremation burials or with the diffusion of a particular physical type. The German school of Penka and Kossinna regarded these languages as the product of the Nordic race, and connected this diffusion with a group of cultures characterized by double axes or hammer-axes of stone, by axe-adzes of copper, and by certain varieties of pottery such as corded ware, globular amphorae, etc.
I am not here concerned with the origin of these weapons. The axe-hammers may indeed ultimately be derived from stag-horn types of the mesolithic age. The copper axe-adzes are more restricted in their chronological and geographical setting. Still more restricted in their distribution and more definitely associated with Indo-European speaking peoples are two groups of metal battle-axes found especially in Persia and associated by M. Godard with the Kassites, the halberd-axe and the spiked-butt battle-axe. The first group, derived apparently from the ‘axe with double perforation’ does not really concern us since it seems almost to be confined to Persia, though its parent the ‘Hache à double évident’ occurs first in a double form in the Royal Cemetery at Ur, becomes acclimatized in Syria, and is found so far afield as Vapheio near Sparta, and Mycenae.
page 52 note 1 E. de Michelis, L'Origine degli Indo-Europei, Chap. IX; W. Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece I, chap. 7, etc.
page 52 note 2 C. Penka, Die Herkunst der Arier; G. Kossinna, Die Indo-Germanen and a summary of the evidence up to 1926 in The Aryans, by V. G. Childe.
page 52 note 3 Childe, V. G., ‘Eine Hirschgeweihaxt aus der Mittelsteinzeit Schottlands’ in the Festschrift for Hans SegerGoogle Scholar.
page 52 note 4 Bronzes du Luristan, pp. 45–60 and Pls. XVI to XXIII.
page 52 note 5 Woolley, , Ur Excavations, vol. II, no. U.9687 (Type A 14), Pl. 224Google Scholar.
page 52 note 6 Godard, l.c., pp. 56–60; Dussaud, , Syria, 1930, p. 252Google Scholar.
page 52 note 7 Montelius, La Grece Préclassique, Pl. IV, no. 3.
page 52 note 8 Dussaud, l.c., p. 250 f.; Godard, l.c., pp. 50–54.
page 52 note 9 Woolley, l.c., no. U.9680 (Type A 16), pl. 224.
page 52 note 10 Prinz, , Prähist. Zeitschr., 1912, p. 16 f. and fig. 2Google Scholar.
page 52 note 11 Dullo, E., Prähist. Zeitschr., XXVII, fig. 11Google Scholar.
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page 53 note 1 Dussaud, l.c., p. 245 foll., Pl. XLII and fig. 7, 10, 11.
page 53 note 2 Dussaud, l.c., Pl. XLIII cf. also the 8th-7th century axe from Zalu A 6 in Godard, , Gazette de Beaux Arts, 1933, p. 129 and fig. 9Google Scholar.
page 53 note 3 Puchstein, Boghaz Koi, Pl. XVIII.
page 53 note 4 Godard, l.c., p. 45.
page 53 note 5 Ill. London News, Jan. 1st, 1929, p. 942Google Scholar; and Ber. Archäologischer Mitt. aus Iran, vol. 1.
page 53 note 6 Watzinger, , Denkmäler Palestinas, I, 1933, Pl. XXV, fig. 9Google Scholar.
page 53 note 7 MrsHyslop, Maxwell, Iraq XI, 1949, Pt. 1, p. 107 and Pl. XXXIX, 1, 2 and 3Google Scholar.
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page 53 note 9 Bittel, K. and Guterbock, , Boghaz Koi, 1935, Pl. x, no. 1Google Scholar.
page 53 note 10 Bittel, K., Arch. Anzeiger, 1937, p. 350Google Scholar.
page 53 note 11 Woolley, C. L., J.H.S., 1936, pp. 133, 134 and fig. 3Google Scholar. (photographed upside down).
page 53 note 12 Eos, XXVIII, 1925, pp. 8–11Google Scholar; see also Lamb, W., Archaeologia, 86, p. 4, Excavations at KusuraGoogle Scholar; E. F. Schmidt, Anatolia through the Ages; Schachermeyer, , Hethiter and Achäer, p. 12 f.Google Scholar; and Bittel, , Grundzüge der Vor-und Frühgeschichte Kleinasiens, p. 30 f.Google Scholar
page 53 note 13 Herzfeld, E. E., Archaeological History of Iran, p. 2Google Scholar.
page 54 note 1 E. E. Herzfeld l.c. p.7.
page 54 note 2 Forrer, E. O., Forschungen, Heft 5. Zürich, 1947Google Scholar; Manda is used rather loosely in the cuneiform records for Iranians of all kinds and even for Scythians.
page 54 note 3 Przeworski, S., Eos, XXVIII, 8–11Google Scholar.
page 55 note 1 Antiquity, no. 57, p. 50 f.; see also the note by Childe, V. G. in Antiquity, no. 58, p. 196Google Scholar; see also MissHermes, in Anthropos, vol. 31–2Google Scholar and Wiesner, J. in Der Alte Orient, XXXVIII, 2–4Google Scholar.
page 55 note 2 Antiquity, no. 58, l.c.
page 55 note 3 J.N.E.S., vol. II, p. 149 and pl. XVIII, 295; the excavator Seton Lloyd regards them as copies of stone tools. Childe (in a letter) calls them copies of metal battle-axes; I should personally regard No. 2 as certainly the copy of a metal original, but feel more doubtful over No. 5.
page 56 note 1 Prometheus Vinctus, v, 805Google Scholar.
page 56 note 2 That is if they are Scythian at all; Donalds, Varron, derived the word from Median Orim-açpa=horse of light.
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page 56 note 4 Beattie, A. J., Proc. Cambridge Philological Soc., CLXXIX, p. 10Google Scholar.
page 57 note 1 Lamb, W., Prähist. Zeitschr., 23, 1932Google Scholar.
page 57 note 2 The Peloponnesus in the Bronze Age, p. 20 f.
page 57 note 3 Who were the Greeks?, pp. 249–52.
page 57 note 4 Die Agäis, pp. 302–5. This work contains a very useful summary of the latest writings on Aegean archaeology. The Illyrian connections of the Dorians were emphasized by Ridgeway in his Early Age of Greece, Part 1, pp. 134–56.
page 57 note 5 See A. Furumark, Mycenaean Pottery Analysis and Classification and The Chronology of Mycenaean Pottery.
page 58 note 1 Heurtley, W. A., Prehistoric Macedonia, p. 100 and pl. XXIIIGoogle Scholar.
page 58 note 2 M. E. Mallowan and J. Cruikshank Rose, Prehistoric Assyria, Excavations at Tall Arpachiyah, fig. 51, no. 5 and pl. x.
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page 58 note 5 Xanthoudides, S., Eph. Arch., 1922, p. 12 and fig. 10Google Scholar.
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page 59 note 1 Schaeffer, C. F. A., Stratigraphie Comparée et Chronologie de l'Asie Occidentale, pp. 234–48Google Scholar.
page 59 note 2 Przeworski, , Eos, XXVIII, 1925, pp. 8–11Google Scholar; Delaporte, l.c.
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page 59 note 4 Lamb, W., Archaeologia, 86, p. 45 and fig. 22, no. 7Google Scholar.
page 59 note 5 C. F. A. Schaeffer, l.c., pp. 291–300 and Pl. XXXIX to XLI.
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page 59 note 7 Ayräpää, op. cit., fig. 5 c.
page 59 note 8 Valmin, N., Malthi, p. 350 and Pl. XXVI, F 2–4Google Scholar.
page 59 note 9 Fouilles de Delphes, v, p. 2, fig. 7Google Scholar.
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page 60 note 1 Chapouthier, F. in Etudes Cretoises, I, p. 21 and Pl. XXXIIGoogle Scholar; F. Chapouthier Mallia; ‘Deux Epées d'Apparat, Etudes Cretoises, v.
page 60 note 2 Dr Giamalakis states the shaft-hole appears to have one opening only like the Mallia battle-axe but in this instance the axe might have split during the process of boring.
page 60 note 3 Ridgeway, , Early Age of Greece, vol. II, fig. 121Google Scholar: now in the British Museum.
page 60 note 4 Syria, XVI, and Palestine Quarterly, vol. IV, p. 205Google Scholar.
I am indebted to Professor Stuart Piggott for the references, to Mr J. H. Iliffe, Curator of the Palestine Museum, for supplying me with the photographs of these weapons and for permission to publish them, and for various details to Dr T. Ben Dor.
page 60 note 5 I am indebted to the Conservateurs of the Louvre and in particular to Miss E. de Manneville for this photograph.
page 60 note 6 Ridgeway, W., The Early Age of Greece, vol. II, fig. 121, no. 1Google Scholar.
page 60 note 7 Maxwell-Hyslop, R. in Iraq, vol. XI, part I, p. 92 and Pl. XXXIV, 2, and Bittel, l.c. p. 76fGoogle Scholar.
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page 61 note 2 The Danube in Prehistory, pp. 203–5.
page 61 note 3 Archaiologia i Ertesito (N.S.), XXXIII, pp. 310Google Scholar, etc.
page 61 note 4 Frankfurt, H., Studies in Early Pottery, II, p. 149Google Scholar. Hubert, , Syria, 1925, p. 25, quoting SchranilGoogle Scholar.
page 61 note 5 Schaeffer, C. F. A., Uguritica, II, pp. 48–120Google Scholar.
page 61 note 6 Childe, Dawn, etc., fig. 61; Hançar, , Kaukas-Luristan, , E.S.A., IX, 1939 and Urgeschichte Kaukasiens, p. 367Google Scholar, etc.
page 61 note 7 Rostovtzeff, M. I., J.E.A., VI, Pl. IIIGoogle Scholar.
page 61 note 8 E. F. Schmidt, Excavations at Tepe Hissar-Damghan.
page 61 note 9 Bonnet, H., Die Waffen der Völker des Alten Orients, p. 21Google Scholar.
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page 61 note 11 Dikaios, P., Les Cultes Préhistoriques dans L'Ile de Chypre-Syria, 1932Google Scholar, and Archaeologia 88, p. 90 and pl. XXIX, aGoogle Scholar.
page 61 note 12 Evans, , Palace of Minos, vol. I, p. 194, n. 3Google Scholar.
page 62 note 1 Information for which I have to thank Professor Marinatos.
page 62 note 2 Ashmolean Museum No. 1927.1260.
page 62 note 3 After all the Troad was a mining centre, though I hesitate to identify the lapis weapon as the badge of office of the Master Miner of the Lodge of Idaean Dactyls.
page 63 note 1 Fuchs, , Die griechischen Fundgruppen der Frühen Bronzezeit, pp. 148–50Google Scholar.
page 63 note 2 Gaul, J. H., The Neolithic Period in Bulgaria, p. 216 fGoogle Scholar.
page 63 note 3 Fuchs, l.c., fig. 8, nos. 1 and 2, p. 101.
page 63 note 4 Fuchs, l.c., fig. 8, nos. 3 and 4, p. 101.
page 63 note 5 Fuchs, l.c., fig. 11, nos. 1 and 2, p. 112.
page 63 note 6 Fuchs, l.c., fig. 12, a and b, p. 116.
page 63 note 7 Fuchs, l.c., pp. 96, 97, fig. 7a and b.
page 63 note 8 Fuchs, l.c., p. 124 and pl. XI.
page 63 note 9 J.H.S., vol. LVII, p. 253Google Scholar: Fuchs, pp. 122–4, admits some parallels with Trojan types, but is more impressed by the Central European connections.
page 63 note 10 W. A. Heurtley, pp. 140 f., figs. 8 and 9.
page 64 note 1 Herodotus, VII, 89; Liddell and Scott give ‘battle-axes’ for ‘pole-axes’ for this passage, but no mason's tool is shaped like a pole-axe; only the axe-hammer or the axe-adze would fit both meanings of weapon and mason's tool; for the Cretans τύχος or τύκος meant a carpenter's tool (see τύχος in Hesychius) and so presumably an axe-adze.
page 64 note 2 British Museum Guide to the Exhibition Illustrating Greek and Roman Life, p. 50 and fig. 40Google Scholar.