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Changing Land Use and Political Economy at Neolithic and Bronze Age Knossos, Crete: Stable Carbon (δ13C) and Nitrogen (δ15N) Isotope Analysis of Charred Crop Grains and Faunal Bone Collagen

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 July 2022

VALASIA ISAAKIDOU ,
PAUL HALSTEAD ,
ELIZABETH STROUD ,
ANAYA SARPAKI ,
ELENI HATZAKI ,
ERIKA NITSCH  and
AMY BOGAARD
VALASIA ISAAKIDOU
Affiliation:
School of Archaeology, 1 South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3TG, UK valasia.isaakidou@arch.ox.ac.uk
PAUL HALSTEAD
Affiliation:
20 Jarrow Rd., Sheffield S11 8YB, UK
ELIZABETH STROUD
Affiliation:
School of Archaeology, 1 South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3TG, UK valasia.isaakidou@arch.ox.ac.uk
ANAYA SARPAKI
Affiliation:
Tsikalaria 137, Chania 73100, Greece
ELENI HATZAKI
Affiliation:
Dept of Classics, University of Cincinnati, OH 45221-0226, USA
ERIKA NITSCH
Affiliation:
3 Cabbage Moor, Great Shelford, Cambridge CB22 5NB, UK
AMY BOGAARD
Affiliation:
School of Archaeology, 1 South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3TG, UK valasia.isaakidou@arch.ox.ac.uk
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Abstract

Excavations at Knossos have uncovered faunal and archaeobotanical archives spanning the Neolithic and Bronze Age (7th–2nd millennia bce), during which one of Europe’s earliest known farming settlements developed into its first major urban settlement and centre of one of its oldest regional states. Through stable isotope (δ13C, δ15N) analysis of seeds and bones (as evidence for the growing conditions of cereal and pulse crops and for the types of forage consumed by livestock), land use and, ultimately, political economy are explored. Changing husbandry conditions overwrite any effects of long-term aridification. Early (7th–6th millennium bce) Knossian farmers grew intensively managed cereals and pulses (probably in rotation) that were closely integrated (as manured sources of forage) with livestock. Through the later Neolithic and Bronze Age, settlement growth accompanied more extensive cultivation (eventually with cereals and pulses not in rotation) and greater use of rough graze and, by goats, browse. Pasture on cultivated land remained central, however, to the maintenance of sheep, cattle, and pigs. Variable diet of early sheep suggests management at the household level, while thereafter progressive dietary divergence of sheep and goats implies their separate herding. Until the Old Palace phase (early 2nd millennium bce), urban growth was matched by increasingly extensive and probably distant cultivation and herding but somewhat more intensive conditions during the New and Final Palace phases (mid-2nd millennium bce) perhaps reflect greater reliance on surplus from prime land of previously rival centres that now came under Knossian control.

Résumé

RÉSUMÉ

Changements dans l’utilisation des terres et économie politique au Néolithique et à l’âge du Bronze à Cnossos, Crète : analyse des isotopes stables du carbone (δ 13 C) et de l’azote (δ 15 N) des graines cultivées carbonisées et du collagène des ossements animaux, par V. Isaakidou, P. Halstead, E. Stroud, A. Sarpaki, E. Hatzaki, E. Nitsch et A. Bogaard

Les fouilles de Cnossos ont mis au jour des archives fauniques et archéobotaniques couvrant le Néolithique et l’âge du Bronze (VIIe–IIe millénaires av. n. è.), au cours desquels l’un des plus anciens établissements agraires connus en Europe s’est développé́ en un premier centre urbain majeur et en siège de l’un des premiers états régionaux. Grâce à l’analyse des isotopes stables (δ13C, δ15N) des graines et des os (comme témoins des conditions de croissance des céréales et des légumineuses et des types de fourrage consommés par le bétail), l’utilisation des terres et, finalement, l’économie politique sont explorées. L’évolution des conditions de cultivation et d’élevage surpasse les effets de l’aridification à long terme. Les premiers agriculteurs de Cnossos (VIIe–VIe millénaires av. n. è) pratiquaient la culture intensive des céréales et des légumineuses (probablement en rotation), étroitement intégrée (comme source fumée de fourrage) à l’élevage du bétail. Du Néolithique Récent à l’âge du Bronze, l’expansion de l’établissement cnossien s’accompagne d’une agriculture plus extensive (éventuellement sans rotation des céréales et des légumineuses) et d’une plus grande utilisation des pâturages naturels et, dans le cas de chèvres, du broutage. Les pâturages sur les terres cultivées restaient cependant essentiels à l’entretien des moutons, des bovins et des porcs. Le régime alimentaire variable des premiers moutons suggère une gestion au niveau du foyer, tandis que la divergence alimentaire progressive des moutons et des chèvres implique leur élevage séparé. Jusqu’à la phase du premier palais (début du IIe millénaire av. n. è.), l’expansion urbaine s’est accompagnée d’une agriculture et d’un élevage de plus en plus étendus et probablement éloignés, mais des conditions un peu plus intensives pendant les phases du nouveau et du dernier palais (milieu du IIe millénaire av. n. è.) reflètent peut-être une plus grande dépendance à l’égard des surplus de terres fertiles de centres autrefois rivaux et désormais sous le contrôle des habitants de Cnossos.

Zusammenfassung

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Veränderte Landnutzung und politische Ökonomie im neolithischen und bronzezeitlichen Knossos, Kreta: Die Analyse stabiler Kohlenstoff- (δ 13 C) und Stickstoffisotope (δ 15 N) an verkohltem Körner von Kulturpflanzen und Tierknochenkollagen, von V. Isaakidou, P. Halstead, E. Stroud, A. Sarpaki, E. Hatzaki, E. Nitsch und A. Bogaard

Ausgrabungen in Knossos lieferten tierisches und archäobotanisches Material aus dem Neolithikum und der Bronzezeit (7. bis 2. Jahrtausend bce), jenem Zeitraum, in dem sich eine der frühesten bekannten bäuerlichen Siedlungen Europas zu der ersten großen städtischen Siedlung in Europa und zum Zentrum eines seiner ältesten Regionalstaaten entwickelte. Anhand der Analyse stabiler Isotope (δ13C, δ15N) von Samen und Knochen (als Hinweis auf die Anbaubedingungen von Getreide und Hülsenfrüchten sowie für die vom Vieh verzehrten Futtermittelarten) werden die Landnutzung und letztlich die politische Ökonomie untersucht. Die veränderten Haltungsbedingungen überlagern die Auswirkungen der langfristigen Aridifizierung. Die frühen Bauern von Knossos (7.–6. Jahrtausend bce) bauten intensiv Getreide und Hülsenfrüchte an (vermutlich in Fruchtfolge), die eng verbunden waren mit der Viehzucht (als gedüngte Futtermittel). Im Verlauf des späteren Neolithikums und der Bronzezeit ging das Siedlungswachstum einher mit einer extensiveren Bewirtschaftung (eventuell mit Getreide und Hülsenfrüchten nicht in Fruchtfolge) und einer verstärkten Nutzung von unbewirtschafteten Weideflächen sowie der Nutzung holziger Vegetation durch Ziegen. Weide auf Anbauflächen blieb jedoch zentral für die Haltung von Schafen, Rindern und Schweinen. Die variable Ernährung der frühen Schafe lässt auf eine Bewirtschaftung auf Haushaltsebene schließen, während die anschließende zunehmende Divergenz der Ernährung von Schafen und Ziegen deren getrennte Haltung impliziert. Bis zur Älteren Palastzeit (frühes 2. Jahrtausend bce) ging das städtische Wachstum einher mit zunehmend extensivem und vermutlich räumlich distanziertem Ackerbau und Viehhaltung, aber etwas intensivere Bedingungen während der Neueren und Finalen Palastzeit (Mitte 2. Jahrtausend) reflektieren vielleicht einen größeren Rückgriff auf Überschüsse von hochwertigem Land von zuvor rivalisierenden Zentren, die nun unter die Kontrolle von Knossos gekommen waren.

Resumen

RESUMEN

Modificaciones en el uso del suelo y en la política económica durante el Neolítico y la Edad del Bronce en Knossos, Creta: análisis de isótopos estables de carbono (δ 13 C) y nitrógeno (δ 15 N) de granos de cultivo carbonizados y colágeno de huesos animales, por V. Isaakidou, P. Halstead, E. Stroud, A. Sarpaki, E. Hatzaki, E. Nitsch y A. Bogaard

Las excavaciones en Knossos han permitido documentar conjuntos faunísticos y arqueobotánicos que abarcan desde el Neolítico a la Edad del Bronce (VII–II milenios bce), durante los cuales uno de los primeros asentamientos agrícolas conocidos en Europa se convierte en el primer asentamiento urbano y centro de uno de los estados regionales más antiguos. A través del análisis de isótopos estables (δ13C, δ15N) de semillas y huesos de fauna (como evidencia de las condiciones de gestión de los cereales y legumbres cultivados y para establecer los tipos de forraje consumidos por el ganado) se exploran el uso de la tierra y, por último, la economía política. Las condiciones cambiantes del cultivo y de la ganadería sobreescriven cualquier efecto de los procesos de aridificación a largo plazo. Los primeros agricultores de Knossos (VII–VI milenio bce) cultivaban de forma intensiva cereales y legumbres (probablemente en rotación) que fueron estrechamente integrados (como fuentes abonadas de forraje) con la ganadería. A lo largo del Neolítico final y de la Edad del Bronce, el asentamiento aumentó de tamaño acompañado de un cultivo más extensivo (eventualmente con cereales y legumbres sin rotación) y un mayor uso de los pastizales pobres y, para las cabras, de ramoneo. El pasto en las tierras cultivadas, no obstante, fue un aspecto crucial para el mantenimiento de la oveja, el ganado vacuno y los cerdos. La variada dieta de las primeras ovejas sugiere una gestión a nivel doméstico, mientras que una progresiva divergencia en la alimentación de las ovejas y cabras implica actividades de pastoreo independientes. Hasta la fase Old Palace (principios del II milenio bce), el crecimiento urbano estuvo unido a cultivo y pastoreo cada vez más extensivos y probablemente más distantes, pero de alguna manera las condiciones más intensivas durante las fases New y Final Palace (mediados del II milenio bce) refleja quizá una mayor dependencia de los excedentes primarios de la tierra de los centros que previamente eran rivales y que ahora se encuentran bajo control de Knossos.

Keywords

KnossosNeolithicBronze Ageδ13Cδ15Ncrop husbandrypasturesheepgoats
Type
Research Article
Information
Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society , Volume 88 , December 2022 , pp. 155 - 191
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Prehistoric Society

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Footnotes

In memoriam: John D. Evans, Sinclair Hood, & Mervyn Popham

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