Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T12:09:16.206Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The biological basis of benzodiazepine dependence1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 July 2009

Malcolm Lader  and
Sandra File
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. As you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.
Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Editorial
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 17 , Issue 3 , August 1987 , pp. 539 - 547
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1987

References

Adam, K., Adamson, L., Brezinova, V., Hunter, W. M. & Oswald, I. (1976). Nitrazepam: lastingly effective but trouble on withdrawal. British Medical Journal i, 1558–1560.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aranko, K. (1985). Task-dependent development of cross-tolerance to psychomotor effects of lorazepam in man. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 56, 373–381.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aranko, K., Mattila, M. J. & Seppala, T. (1983). Development of tolerance and cross-tolerance to the psychomotor actions of lorazepam and diazepam in man. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 15, 545–552.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aranko, K., Mattila, M. J., Seppala, T. & Aranko, S. (1984). Contribution of the active metabolite to the tolerance developing to diazepam in man. Relationship to bioassayed serum benzodiazepine levels. Medical Biology 62, 277–284.Google Scholar
Aranko, K., Mattila, M. J. & Bordignon, D. (1985 a). Psychomotor effects of alprazolam and diazepam during acute and subacute treatment, and during the follow-up phase. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 56, 364–372.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aranko, K., Mattila, M. J., Nuutila, A. & Pellinen, J. (1985 b). Benzodiazepines, but not antidepressant or neuroleptics, induce dose-dependent development of tolerance to lorazepam in psychiatric patients. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 72, 436–446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashton, J. (1984). Benzodiazepine withdrawal: an unfinished story. British Medical Journal 288, 1135–1140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brosan, L., Broadbent, D., Nutt, D. & Broadbent, M. (1986). Performance effects of diazepam during and after prolonged administration. Psychological Medicine 16, 561–571.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Busto, U. & Sellers, E. M. (1986). Pharmacokinetic determinants of drug abuse and dependence. Clinical Pharmacokinetics 11, 144–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Committee on the Review of Medicines. (1980). Systematic review of the benzodiazepines. British Medical Journal i, 910–912.Google Scholar
Cumin, R., Bonetti, E. P., Scherschlicht, R. & Haefely, W. E. (1982). Use of the specific benzodiazepine antagonist, Ro 15–1788, in studies of physiological dependence on benzodiazepines. Experientia 38, 833–834.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emmett-Oglesby, M., Spencer, D. G., Lewis, M. W., Elmeasallamy, F. & Lal, H. (1983 a). Anxiogenic aspects of diazepam withdrawal can be detected in animals. European Journal of Pharmacology 92, 127–130.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emmett-Oglesby, M., Spencer, D. G.Elmesallamy, F. & Lal, H. (1983 b). The pentylenetetrazol model of anxiety detects withdrawal from diazepam in rats. Life Science 33, 161–168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
File, S. E. (1982 a). Chlordiazepoxide-induced ataxia, muscle relaxation and sedation in the rat: effects of muscimol, picrotoxin and naloxone. Pharmacology, Biochemistry & Behavior 17, 1165–1170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
File, S. E. (1982 b). Recovery from lorazepam tolerance and the effects of a benzodiazepine antagonist (Ro 15–1788) on the development of tolerance. Psychopharmacology 77, 284–288.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
File, S. E. (1985). Tolerance to the behavioural actions of benzodiazepines. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 9, 113–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
File, S. E. & Lister, R. G. (1983). Does tolerance to lorazepam develop with once weekly dosing? British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 16, 645–650.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
File, S. E. & Pellow, S. (1985 a). Chlordiazepoxide enhances the anxiogenic action of CGS 8216 in the social interaction test: evidence for benzodiazepine withdrawal? Pharmacology, Biochemistry & Behavior 23, 33–36.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
File, S. E. & Pellow, S. (1985 b). No cross-tolerance between the stimulatory and depressant actions of benzodiazepines in mice. Behavioural Brain Research 17, 1–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
File, S. E. & Pellow, S. (1986). Intrinsic actions of the benzodiazepine receptor antagonist Ro 15–1788. Psychopharmacology 88, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
File, S. E., Dingemanse, J., Friedman, H. L. & Greenblatt, D. J. (1986). Chronic treatment with Ro 15–1788 distinguishes between its benzodiazepine antagonist, agonist and inverse agonist properties. Psychopharmacology 89, 113–117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fontaine, R., Chouinard, G. & Annable, L. (1984). Rebound anxiety in anxious patients after abrupt withdrawal of benzodiazepine treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry 141, 848–852.Google ScholarPubMed
Ghoneim, M. M., Mewaldt, S. P., Berie, J. L., Hinrichs, J. V. (1981). Memory and performance effects of single and 3-week administration of diazepam: 1. Learning and memory. Psychopharmacology 73, 147–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenblatt, D. J., Woo, E., Allen, M. D., Orsulak, P. J. & Shader, R. I. (1978). Rapid recovery from massive diazepam overdose. Journal of the American Medical Association 240, 1872–1874.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hallstrom, C. & Lader, M. (1981). Benzodiazepine withdrawal phenomena. International Pharmacopsychiatry 16, 235–244.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hollister, L. E. (1983). Clinical Pharmacology of Psychotherapeutic Drugs (second edn) p. 41. Churchill Livingstone: New York.Google Scholar
Hollister, L. E., Motzenbecker, F. P. & Degan, R. O. (1961). Withdrawal reactions from chlordiazepoxide (Librium). Psychopharmacologia 2, 63–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hollister, L. E., Bennett, J. L., Kimbell, I Jr., Savage, C. & Overall, J. E. (1963). Diazepam in newly admitted schizophrenics. Diseases of the Nervous System 24, 746–750.Google ScholarPubMed
Jaffe, J. H. (1980). Drug addiction and drug abuse. In The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (Sixth edn), (ed. Gilman, A. Goodman, Goodman, L. S. & Gilman, A.), pp. 535–584. Macmillan: New York.Google Scholar
Kales, A., Soldatos, C. R., Bixler, E. O. & Kales, J. D. (1983 a). Rebound insomnia and rebound anxiety: a review. Pharmacology 26, 121–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kales, A., Soldatos, C. R., Bixler, E. O. & Kales, J. D. (1983 b). Early morning insomnia with rapidly eliminated benzodiazepines. Science 220, 95–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khan, A., Joyce, P. & Jones, A. V. (1980). Benzodiazepine withdrawal syndromes. New Zealand Medical Journal 92, 94–96.Google ScholarPubMed
Kiianmaa, K. & Boguslawsky, K. (1981). Behavioral effects following chronic treatment with chlormethiazole, pentobarbital and diazepam in the rat. Substance and Alcohol Actions/Misuse 2, 45–54.Google ScholarPubMed
Lader, M. & Lawson, C. (1987). Sleep studies and rebound insomnia: methodological problems, laboratory findings and clinical implications. Clinical Neuropharmacology (in the press).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ladewig, D. (1984). Dependence liability of the benzodiazepines. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 13, 139–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lamb, R. J. & Griffiths, R. R. (1985). Effects of repeated Ro 15–1788 administration in benzodiazepine-dependent baboons. European Journal of Pharmacology 110, 257–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laurell, H. & Tornros, J. (1986). The carry-over effects of triazolam compared with nitrazepam and placebo in acute emergency driving situations and in monotonous simulated driving. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 58, 182–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laux, G. & Puryear, D. A. (1984). Benzodiazepines – misuse, abuse and dependency. American Family Physician 30, 139–147.Google ScholarPubMed
Lister, R. G. & File, S. E. (1986). A late-appearing benzodiazepine-induced hypoactivity that is not reversed by a receptor antagonist. Psychopharmacology 88, 520–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lister, R. G. & Nutt, D. J. (1986). Mice and rats are sensitized to the proconvulsant action of a benzodiazepine-receptor inverse agonist (FG 7142) following a single dose of lorazepam. Brian Research, 379, 364–366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lister, R. G., File, S. E. & Greenblatt, D. J. (1983). Functional tolerance to lorazepam in the rat. Psychopharmacology 81, 292–294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Little, H. J., Nutt, D. J. & Taylor, S. C. (1984). Acute and chronic effects of the benzodiazepine receptor ligand FG 7142: proconvulsant properties and kindling. British Journal of Pharmacology 83, 951–958.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lucki, I., Rickels, K. & Geller, A. M. (1986). Chronic use of benzodiazepines and psychomotor and cognitive test performance. Psychopharmacology 88, 426–433.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lukas, S. E. & Griffiths, R. R. (1984). Precipitated diazepam withdrawal in baboons: effects of dose and duration of diazepam exposure. European Journal of Pharmacology 100, 163–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McMillan, D. E. & Leander, J. D. (1978). Chronic chlordiazepoxide and pentobarbital interactions on punished and unpunished behavior. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 207, 515–520.Google ScholarPubMed
McNicholas, L. F. & Martin, W. R. (1982). The effect of a benzodiazepine antagonist, Ro 15–1788, in diazepam-dependent rats. Life Science 31, 731–737.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McNicholas, L. F., Martin, W. R. & Cherian, S. (1983). Physical dependence on diazepam and lorazepam in the dog. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 226, 783–789.Google ScholarPubMed
Marks, J. (1978). The Benzodiazepines. Use, Overuse, Misuse, Abuse. MTP Press: Lancaster.Google Scholar
Marks, J. (1983). The benzodiazepines – for good or evil. Neuropsychobiology 10, 115–126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, W. R., McNicholas, L. F. & Cherian, S. (1982). Diazepam and pentobarbital dependence in the rat. Life Sciences 31, 721–730.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mele, L., Sagratella, S. & Massotti, M. (1984). Chronic administration of diazepam to rats causes changes in EEG patterns and in coupling between GABA receptors and benzodiazepine binding sites in vitro. Brain Research 323, 93–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan, K. & Oswald, I. (1982). Anxiety caused by a short-life hypnotic. British Medical Journal 284, 942.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olajide, D. & Lader, M. (1985). Depression following withdrawal from long-term benzodiazepine use: a report of four cases. Psychological Medicine 15, 937–940.Google Scholar
Olsen, R. W. (1982). Drug interactions at the GABA-receptorionophore complex. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 22, 245–277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oswald, I., French, C., Adam, K. & Gilham, J. (1982). Benzodiazepine hypnotics remain effective for 24 weeks. British Medical Journal 284, 860–863.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Owen, R. T. & Tyrer, P. (1983). Benzodiazepine dependence. A review of the evidence. Drugs 25, 385–398.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palmer, G. C. (1978). Use, overuse, misuse, and abuse of benzodiazepines. Alabama Journal of Medical Sciences 15, 383–392.Google ScholarPubMed
Pecknold, J. C., McClure, D. J., Fleuri, D. & Chang, H. (1982). Benzodiazepine withdrawal effects. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 6, 517–522.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petursson, H. & Lader, M. H. (1981 a). Withdrawal from long-term benzodiazepine treatment. British Medical Journal 283, 643–645.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petursson, J., & Lader, M. H. (1981 b). Withdrawal symptoms from clobazam. Royal Society of Medicine International Congress and Symposium Series No. 43, 181–183.Google Scholar
Petursson, H. & Lader, M. (1984). Dependence on Tranquillizers, Maudsley Monograph, No. 28. Oxford University Press: Oxford.Google Scholar
Power, K. G., Jerrom, D. W. A., Simpson, R. J. & Mitchell, M. (1985). Controlled study of withdrawal symptoms and rebound anxiety after six week course of diazepam for generalised anxiety. British Medical Journal, 290, 1246–1248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rhodes, P. J., Rhodes, R. S. & McCurdy, J. H. (1984). Elimination kinetics and symptomatology of diazepam withdrawal in abusers. Clinical Toxicology 22, 371–374.Google ScholarPubMed
Rickels, K., Case, G. W., Downing, R. W. & Winokur, A. (1983). Long-term diazepam therapy and clinical outcome. Journal of the American Medical Association 250, 767–771.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rickels, K., Case, G. W., Winokur, A. & Swenson, C. (1984). Long-term benzodiazepine therapy: benefits and risks. Psychopharmacology Bulletin 4, 608–615.Google Scholar
Rickels, K., Case, W. G., Downing, R. W. & Winokur, A. (1985). Indications and contraindications for chronic anxiolytic treatment: is there tolerance to the anxiolytic effect? In Chronic Treatments in Neuropsychiatry (ed. Kemali, D. & Racagni, G.), pp. 193–204, Raven Press: New York.Google Scholar
Roehrs, T. A., Zorick, R. J., Wittig, R. M. & Roth, T. (1986). Dose determinants of rebound insomnia. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 22, 143–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenberg, H. C. & Chiu, T. H. (1982). An antagonist-induced benzodiazepine abstinence syndrome. European Journal of Pharmacology 81, 153–157.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ryan, G. P. & Boisse, N. R. (1984). Benzodiazepine tolerance, physical dependence and withdrawal: electrophysiological study of spinal reflex function. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 231, 464–471.Google ScholarPubMed
Smith, D. E. & Wesson, D. R. (1983). Benzodiazepine dependence syndromes. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 15, 85–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyrer, P., Rutherford, D. & Huggett, T. (1981). Benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms and propranolol. Lancet i, 520–522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyrer, P., Owen, R. & Dawling, S. (1983). Gradual withdrawal of diazepam after long-term therapy. Lancet i, 1402–1406.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White House Office of Drug Policy and National Institute on Drug Abuse. (1979). FDA Drug Bulletin, 08, 16.Google Scholar
Wilks, L. J. & File, S. E. (1986). Withdrawal from three different anticonvulsants: effects on aggression, exploration and seizure threshold. Society of Neurosciences, Abstracts 12, 906.Google Scholar
Wilks, L. J., File, S. E., Martin, I. L. & Greenblatt, D. J. (1987). Comparison of the effects of a single dose of oxazepam in two inbred strains of mice: changes in seizure threshold, receptor occupancy and brain concentrations across time. Psychopharmacology (in the press).Google Scholar
Winokur, A. & Rickels, K. (1984). Withdrawal responses to abrupt discontinuation of desmethyldiazepam. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 1427–1429.Google ScholarPubMed