Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T07:14:34.213Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Developmental influences on symptom expression in antipsychotic-naïve first-episode psychosis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 October 2020

Miranda Bridgwater Open the ORCID record for Miranda Bridgwater [Opens in a new window] ,
Peter Bachman Open the ORCID record for Peter Bachman [Opens in a new window] ,
Brenden Tervo-Clemmens ,
Gretchen Haas Open the ORCID record for Gretchen Haas [Opens in a new window] ,
Rebecca Hayes ,
Beatriz Luna Open the ORCID record for Beatriz Luna [Opens in a new window] ,
Dean F. Salisbury Open the ORCID record for Dean F. Salisbury [Opens in a new window]  and
Maria Jalbrzikowski Open the ORCID record for Maria Jalbrzikowski [Opens in a new window]
Miranda Bridgwater
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Maryland, USA
Peter Bachman
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Brenden Tervo-Clemmens
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Gretchen Haas
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA VISN4 MIRECC at VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Rebecca Hayes
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Beatriz Luna
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA Department of Pediatrics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Dean F. Salisbury
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Maria Jalbrzikowski*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
*
Author for correspondence: Maria Jalbrzikowski, E-mail: jalbrzikowskime@upmc.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

The neurodevelopmental model of psychosis was established over 30 years ago; however, the developmental influence on psychotic symptom expression – how age affects clinical presentation in first-episode psychosis – has not been thoroughly investigated.

Methods

Using generalized additive modeling, which allows for linear and non-linear functional forms of age-related change, we leveraged symptom data from a large sample of antipsychotic-naïve individuals with first-episode psychosis (N = 340, 12–40 years, 1–12 visits), collected at the University of Pittsburgh from 1990 to 2017. We examined relationships between age and severity of perceptual and non-perceptual positive symptoms and negative symptoms. We tested for age-associated effects on change in positive or negative symptom severity following baseline assessment and explored the time-varying relationship between perceptual and non-perceptual positive symptoms across adolescent development.

Results

Perceptual positive symptom severity significantly decreased with increasing age (F = 7.0, p = 0.0007; q = 0.003) while non-perceptual positive symptom severity increased with age (F = 4.1, p = 0.01, q = 0.02). Anhedonia severity increased with increasing age (F = 6.7, p = 0.00035; q = 0.0003), while flat affect decreased in severity with increased age (F = 9.8, p = 0.002; q = 0.006). Findings remained significant when parental SES, IQ, and illness duration were included as covariates. There were no developmental effects on change in positive or negative symptom severity (all p > 0.25). Beginning at age 18, there was a statistically significant association between severity of non-perceptual and perceptual symptoms. This relationship increased in strength throughout adulthood.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that as maturation proceeds, perceptual symptoms attenuate while non-perceptual symptoms are enhanced. Findings underscore how pathological brain–behavior relationships vary as a function of development.

Keywords

Adolescenceage effectsantipsychotic-naïveschizophreniapsychotic symptoms
Type
Original Article
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 52 , Issue 9 , July 2022 , pp. 1698 - 1709
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Amminger, G. P., Harris, M. G., Conus, P., Lambert, M., Elkins, K. S., Yuen, H.-P., & McGorry, P. D. (2006). Treated incidence of first-episode psychosis in the catchment area of EPPIC between 1997 and 2000. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 114(5), 337–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2006.00790.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andreasen, N. C. (1984a). Scale for the assessment of negative symptoms (SANS). Iowa City, Iowa: University of Iowa.Google Scholar
Andreasen, N. C. (1984b). Scale for the assessment of positive symptoms (SAPS). Iowa City, Iowa: University of Iowa.Google Scholar
Ballageer, T., Malla, A., Manchanda, R., Takhar, J., & Haricharan, R. (2005). Is adolescent-onset first-episode psychosis different from adult onset? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(8), 782–789. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000164591.55942.ea.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bjarke, J., Sinkeviciute, I., Kroken, R. A., Løberg, E.-M., Jørgensen, H. A., Johnsen, E., & Gjestad, R. (2020). Different response patterns in hallucinations and delusions to antipsychotic treatment. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/08039488.2020.1745273.Google ScholarPubMed
Brandizzi, M., Schultze-Lutter, F., Masillo, A., Lanna, A., Curto, M., Lindau, J. F., … Fiori Nastro, P. (2014). Self-reported attenuated psychotic-like experiences in help-seeking adolescents and their association with age, functioning and psychopathology. Schizophrenia Research, 160(1–3), 110–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2014.10.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calabro, F. J., Murty, V. P., Jalbrzikowski, M., Tervo-Clemmens, B., & Luna, B. (2020). Development of hippocampal–prefrontal Cortex interactions through adolescence. Cerebral Cortex, 30(3), 1548–1558. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhz186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, T. D., Cadenhead, K., Cornblatt, B., Woods, S. W., Addington, J., Walker, E., … Heinssen, R. (2008). Prediction of psychosis in youth at high clinical risk: A multisite longitudinal study in North America. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65(1), 28. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2007.3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cannon, T. D., Yu, C., Addington, J., Bearden, C. E., Cadenhead, K. S., Cornblatt, B. A., … Kattan, M. W. (2016). An individualized risk calculator for research in prodromal psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 173(10), 980–988.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clemmensen, L., Vernal, D. L., & Steinhausen, H.-C. (2012). A systematic review of the long-term outcome of early onset schizophrenia. BMC Psychiatry, 12(1), 150. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-12-150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Compas, B. E. (1987). Coping with stress during childhood and adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 101(3), 393–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corcoran, C., Kimhy, D., Stanford, A., Khan, S., Walsh, J., Thompson, J., … Colibazzi, T. (2008). Temporal association of cannabis use with symptoms in individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 106(2–3), 286–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2008.08.008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corcoran, C., Walker, E., Huot, R., Mittal, V., Tessner, K., Kestler, L., & Malaspina, D. (2003). The stress cascade and schizophrenia: Etiology and onset. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 29(4), 671–692. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a007038.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corlett, P. R., Horga, G., Fletcher, P. C., Alderson-Day, B., Schmack, K., & Powers, A. R. (2019). Hallucinations and strong priors. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 23(2), 114–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.12.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corlett, P. R., Taylor, J. R., Wang, X.-J., Fletcher, P. C., & Krystal, J. H. (2010). Toward a neurobiology of delusions. Progress in Neurobiology, 92(3), 345–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2010.06.007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Costello, E. J., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., & Angold, A. (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(8), 837–844. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.60.8.837.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
David, C. N., Greenstein, D., Clasen, L., Gochman, P., Miller, R., Tossell, J. W., … Rapoport, J. L. (2011). Childhood onset schizophrenia: High rate of visual hallucinations. Adolescent Psychiatry, 50(7), 9.Google ScholarPubMed
Degenhardt, L., Tennant, C., Gilmour, S., Schofield, D., Nash, L., Hall, W., & McKay, D. (2007). The temporal dynamics of relationships between cannabis, psychosis and depression among young adults with psychotic disorders: Findings from a 10-month prospective study. Psychological Medicine, 37(7), 927–934. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291707009956.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeVylder, J. E., Ben-David, S., Schobel, S. A., Kimhy, D., Malaspina, D., & Corcoran, C. M. (2013). Temporal association of stress sensitivity and symptoms in individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis. Psychological Medicine, 43(2), 259–268. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291712001262.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eccles, J. S., Midgley, C., Wigfield, A., Buchanan, C. M., & Reuman, D. (1993). Development during adolescence. American Psychologist, 12, 90–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellman, L. M., Murphy, S. K., Maxwell, S. D., Calvo, E. M., Cooper, T., Schaefer, C. A., … Brown, A. S. (2019). Maternal cortisol during pregnancy and offspring schizophrenia: Influence of fetal sex and timing of exposure. Schizophrenia Research, 213, 15–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2019.07.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellwood-Lowe, M. E., Humphreys, K. L., Ordaz, S. J., Camacho, M. C., Sacchet, M. D., & Gotlib, I. H. (2018). Time-varying effects of income on hippocampal volume trajectories in adolescent girls. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 30, 41–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2017.12.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Firmin, R. L., Lysaker, P. H., Luther, L., Yanos, P. T., Leonhardt, B., Breier, A., & Vohs, J. L. (2019). Internalized stigma in adults with early phase versus prolonged psychosis. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 13(4), 745–751. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.12553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W., (2002). Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV-TR axis I disorders, research version, patient edition. SCID-I/P. New York: Biometrics Research, New York State Psychiatric Institute.Google Scholar
Fulford, D., Niendam, T. A., Floyd, E. G., Carter, C. S., Mathalon, D. H., Vinogradov, S., … Loewy, R. L. (2013). Symptom dimensions and functional impairment in early psychosis: More to the story than just negative symptoms. Schizophrenia Research, 147(1), 125–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2013.03.024.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fusar-Poli, P., Rocchetti, M., Sardella, A., Avila, A., Brandizzi, M., Caverzasi, E., … McGuire, P. (2015). Disorder, not just state of risk: Meta-analysis of functioning and quality of life in people at high risk of psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 207(3), 198–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fusar-Poli, P., Tantardini, M., De Simone, S., Ramella-Cravaro, V., Oliver, D., Kingdon, J., … McGuire, P. (2017). Deconstructing vulnerability for psychosis: Meta-analysis of environmental risk factors for psychosis in subjects at ultra high-risk. European Psychiatry, 40, 65–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garber, J., Keiley, M. K., & Martin, N. C. (2002). Developmental trajectories of adolescents’ depressive symptoms: Predictors of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70(1), 79–95. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.70.1.79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garety, P. A., Kuipers, E., Fowler, D., Freeman, D., & Bebbington, P. E. (2001). A cognitive model of the positive symptoms of psychosis. Psychological Medicine, 31(2), 189–195. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291701003312.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ge, X., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (2001). Pubertal transition, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms. Developmental Psychology, 37(3), 404–417. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.37.3.404.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glaser, B., Gunnell, D., Timpson, N. J., Joinson, C., Zammit, S., Smith, G. D., & Lewis, G. (2011). Age- and puberty-dependent association between IQ score in early childhood and depressive symptoms in adolescence. Psychological Medicine, 41(2), 333–343. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291710000814.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, W. H., Padron-Gayol, M., Hardesty, A. S., & Bassiri, M. (1992). Schizophrenia with childhood onset: A phenomenological study of 38 cases. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31(5), 968–976. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199209000-00027.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunduz-Bruce, H., McMeniman, M., Robinson, D. G., Woerner, M. G., Kane, J. M., Schooler, N. R., & Lieberman, J. A. (2005). Duration of untreated psychosis and time to treatment response for delusions and hallucinations. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(10), 1966–1969. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.10.1966.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haas, G. L., & Sweeney, J. A. (1992). Premorbid and onset features of first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 18(3), 373–386. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/18.3.373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Häfner, H., Maurer, K., Löffler, W., & Riecher-Rössler, A. (1993). The influence of Age and Sex on the onset and early course of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 162(1), 80–86. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.162.1.80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Häfner, H., Riecher-Rössler, A., Maurer, K., Fätkenheuer, B., & Löffler, W. (1992). First onset and early symptomatology of schizophrenia: A chapter of epidemiological and neurobiological research into age and sex differences. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 242(2–3), 109–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02191557.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hale, W. W., Raaijmakers, Q., Muris, P., van Hoof, A., & Meeus, W. (2008). Developmental trajectories of adolescent anxiety disorder symptoms: A 5-year prospective community study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(5), 556–564. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181676583.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hastie, T., & Tibshirani, R. (1986). Generalized additive models. Statistical Science, 1(3), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1214/ss/1177013604.Google Scholar
Hastie, T., & Tibshirani, R. J. (1990). Generalized additive models. London: Chapman and Hall.Google Scholar
Herbener, E. S., & Harrow, M. (2004). Are negative symptoms associated with functioning deficits in both schizophrenia and nonschizophrenia patients? A 10-year longitudinal analysis. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 30(4), 813–825. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a007134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hides, L., Dawe, S., Kavanagh, D. J., & Young, R. M. (2006). Psychotic symptom and cannabis relapse in recent-onset psychosis: Prospective study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 189(2), 137–143. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.105.014308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, K., & Startup, M. (2013). The relationship between internalized stigma, negative symptoms and social functioning in schizophrenia: The mediating role of self-efficacy. Psychiatry Research, 206(2–3), 151–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2012.09.056.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ho, B.-C., Psych, M. R. C., Nopoulos, P., & Arndt, S. (1998). Two-year outcome in first-episode schizophrenia: Predictive value of symptoms for quality of life. American Journal of Psychiatry, 6, 1196–1201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Immonen, J., Jääskeläinen, E., Korpela, H., & Miettunen, J. (2017). Age at onset and the outcomes of schizophrenia: A systematic review and meta-analysis: Age at onset and the outcomes of schizophrenia. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 11(6), 453–460. https://doi.org/10.1111/eip.12412.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Insel, T. R. (2010). Rethinking schizophrenia. Nature, 468(7321), 187–193. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jalbrzikowski, M., Larsen, B., Hallquist, M. N., Foran, W., Calabro, F., & Luna, B. (2017). Development of white matter microstructure and intrinsic functional connectivity between the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex: Associations with anxiety and depression. Biological Psychiatry, 82(7), 511–521.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jardri, R., Thomas, P., Delmaire, C., Delion, P., & Pins, D. (2013). The neurodynamic organization of modality-dependent hallucinations. Cerebral Cortex, 23(5), 1108–1117. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhs082.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joa, I., Johannessen, J. O., Langeveld, J., Friis, S., Melle, I., Opjordsmoen, S., … Larsen, T. K. (2009). Baseline profiles of adolescent vs. Adult-onset first-episode psychosis in an early detection program. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 119(6), 494–500. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2008.01338.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kapur, S. (2003). Psychosis as a state of aberrant salience: A framework linking biology, phenomenology, and pharmacology in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rao, U., Flynn, C., Moreci, P., … Ryan, N. (1997). Schedule for affective disorders and Schizophrenia for school-age children-present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): Initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(7), 980–988.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kay, S. R., Fiszbein, A., & Opler, L. A. (1987). The positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) for Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 13(2), 261–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelleher, I., Connor, D., Clarke, M. C., Devlin, N., Harley, M., & Cannon, M. (2012a). Prevalence of psychotic symptoms in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review and meta-analysis of population-based studies. Psychological Medicine, 42(9), 1857–1863. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291711002960.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelleher, I., Harley, M., Murtagh, A., & Cannon, M. (2011). Are screening instruments valid for psychotic-like experiences? A validation study of screening questions for psychotic-like experiences using in-depth clinical interview. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37(2), 362–369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelleher, I., Keeley, H., Corcoran, P., Lynch, F., Fitzpatrick, C., Devlin, N., … Cannon, M. (2012b). Clinicopathological significance of psychotic experiences in non-psychotic young people: Evidence from four population-based studies. British Journal of Psychiatry, 201(1), 26–32. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.111.101543.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirkbride, J. B., Fearon, P., Morgan, C., Dazzan, P., Morgan, K., Tarrant, J., … Jones, P. B. (2006). Heterogeneity in incidence rates of schizophrenia and other psychotic syndromes: Findings from the 3-centerÆSOP study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63(3), 250. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.63.3.250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lancefield, K. S., Raudino, A., Downs, J. M., & Laurens, K. R. (2016). Trajectories of childhood internalizing and externalizing psychopathology and psychotic-like experiences in adolescence: A prospective population-based cohort study. Development and Psychopathology, 28(2), 527–536. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415001108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Larsen, B., & Luna, B. (2018). Adolescence as a neurobiological critical period for the development of higher-order cognition. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 94, 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.09.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lecrubier, Y., Perry, R., Milligan, G., Leeuwenkamp, O., & Morlock, R. (2007). Physician observations and perceptions of positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia: A multinational, cross-sectional survey. European Psychiatry, 22(6), 371–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2007.03.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewandowski, K. E., DePaola, J., Camsari, G. B., Cohen, B. M., & Öngür, D. (2009). Tactile, olfactory, and gustatory hallucinations in psychotic disorders: A descriptive study. Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore, 38(5), 383–387.Google ScholarPubMed
Loewy, R. L., Bearden, C. E., Johnson, J. K., Raine, A., & Cannon, T. D. (2005). The prodromal questionnaire (PQ): preliminary validation of a self-report screening measure for prodromal and psychotic syndromes. Schizophrenia Research, 79(1), 117–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lysaker, P. H., Vohs, J. L., & Tsai, J. (2009). Negative symptoms and concordant impairments in attention in schizophrenia: Associations with social functioning, hope, self-esteem and internalized stigma. Schizophrenia Research, 110(1–3), 165–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2009.01.015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maher, B. A. (1974). Delusional thinking and perceptual disorder. Journal of Individual Psychology, 30(1), 98–113.Google ScholarPubMed
Maher, B. A. (2006). The relationship between delusions and hallucinations. Current Psychiatry Reports, 8(3), 179–183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-006-0021-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mäkinen, J., Miettunen, J., Isohanni, M., & Koponen, H. (2008). Negative symptoms in schizophrenia – a review. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 62(5), 334–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/08039480801959307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malla, A., Norman, R., Schmitz, N., Manchanda, R., Béchard-Evans, L., Takhar, J., & Haricharan, R. (2006). Predictors of rate and time to remission in first-episode psychosis: A two-year outcome study. Psychological Medicine, 36(05), 649. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291706007379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Markham, J. A. (2012). Sex steroids and schizophrenia. Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders, 13(3), 187–207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11154-011-9184-2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGlashan, T. H. (2001). Structured interview for prodromal syndromes (SIPS). New Haven, CT: Yale University.Google Scholar
Mikanmaa, E., Grent-’t-Jong, T., Hua, L., Recasens, M., Thune, H., & Uhlhaas, P. J. (2019). Towards a neurodynamical understanding of the prodrome in schizophrenia. NeuroImage, 190, 144–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.11.026.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Milev, P., Ho, B.-C., Arndt, S., & Andreasen, N. C. (2005). Predictive values of neurocognition and negative symptoms on functional outcome in schizophrenia: A longitudinal first-episode study with 7-year follow-up. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(3), 495–506. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.3.495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, T. J., McGlashan, T. H., Rosen, J. L., Cadenhead, K., Ventura, J., McFarlane, W., … Woods, S. W. (2003). Prodromal assessment with the structured interview for prodromal syndromes and the scale of prodromal symptoms: Predictive validity, interrater reliability and training to reliability. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 29(4), 703–715.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mueser, K. T., Bellack, A. S., & Brady, E. U. (1990). Hallucinations in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 82(1), 26–29. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1990.tb01350.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murray, R. M., & Lewis, S. W. (1987). Is schizophrenia a neurodevelopmental disorder? British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Ed.), 295(6600), 681–682. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.295.6600.681.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Öngür, D., Lin, L., & Cohen, B. M. (2009). Clinical characteristics influencing age at onset in psychotic disorders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 50(1), 13–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2008.06.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Overall, J. E., & Gorham, D. R. (1962). The brief psychiatric rating scale. Psychological Reports, 10, 799–812.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Owen, M. J., O'Donovan, M. C., Thapar, A., & Craddock, N. (2011). Neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 198(3), 173–175. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.110.084384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pencer, A., Addington, J., & Addington, D. (2005). Outcome of a first episode of psychosis in adolescence: A 2-year follow-up. Psychiatry Research, 133(1), 35–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2004.10.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Radua, J., Ramella-Cravaro, V., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Reichenberg, A., Phiphopthatsanee, N., Amir, T., … Fusar-Poli, P. (2018). What causes psychosis? An umbrella review of risk and protective factors. World Psychiatry, 17(1), 49–66. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rapoport, J. L., Giedd, J. N., & Gogtay, N. (2012). Neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: Update 2012. Molecular Psychiatry, 17(12), 1228–1238. https://doi.org/10.1038/mp.2012.23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Santesteban-Echarri, O., Paino, M., Rice, S., González-Blanch, C., McGorry, P., Gleeson, J., & Alvarez-Jimenez, M. (2017). Predictors of functional recovery in first-episode psychosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Clinical Psychology Review, 58, 59–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.09.007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schimmelmann, B. G., Michel, C., Martz-Irngartinger, A., Linder, C., & Schultze-Lutter, F. (2015). Age matters in the prevalence and clinical significance of ultra-high-risk for psychosis symptoms and criteria in the general population: Findings from the BEAR and BEARS-kid studies. World Psychiatry, 14(2), 189–197.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, S. D., Jelinek, L., Lincoln, T. M., & Moritz, S. (2011). What happened to the voices? A fine-grained analysis of how hallucinations and delusions change under psychiatric treatment. Psychiatry Research, 188(1), 13–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2010.12.013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schultze-Lutter, F., Hubl, D., Schimmelmann, B. G., & Michel, C. (2017). Age effect on prevalence of ultra-high risk for psychosis symptoms: Replication in a clinical sample of an early detection of psychosis service. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26(11), 1401–1405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-017-0994-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharma, R. (1999). Hallucinations in the acute schizophrenic-type psychosis: Effects of gender and age of illness onset. Schizophrenia Research, 37(1), 91–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0920-9964(98)00144-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simmonds, D. J., Hallquist, M. N., Asato, M., & Luna, B. (2014). Developmental stages and sex differences of white matter and behavioral development through adolescence: A longitudinal diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) study. Neuroimage, 92(C), 356–368.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simmons, R. G., Burgeson, R., Carlton-Ford, S., & Blyth, D. A. (1987). The impact of cumulative change in early adolescence. Child Development, 58(5), 1220–1234. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1987.tb01453.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (1985). Structured clinical interview for DSM-III-R, patient version. New York: Biometric Research Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute.Google Scholar
Stroud, L. R., Foster, E., Papandonatos, G. D., Handwerger, K., Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., & Niaura, R. (2009). Stress response and the adolescent transition: Performance versus peer rejection stressors. Development and Psychopathology, 21(1), 47–68. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409000042.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thapar, A., & Riglin, L. (2020). The importance of a developmental perspective in psychiatry: What do recent genetic-epidemiological findings show? Molecular Psychiatry, 25, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-020-0648-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Nimwegen, L., Haan, L., Beveren, N., Brink, W., & Linszen, D. (2005). Adolescence, schizophrenia and drug abuse: A window of vulnerability. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 111(s427), 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2005.00543.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van Oort, F. V. A., Greaves-Lord, K., Verhulst, F. C., Ormel, J., & Huizink, A. C. (2009). The developmental course of anxiety symptoms during adolescence: The TRAILS study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(10), 1209–1217. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02092.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ventura, J., Hellemann, G. S., Thames, A. D., Koellner, V., & Nuechterlein, K. H. (2009). Symptoms as mediators of the relationship between neurocognition and functional outcome in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research, 113(2–3), 189–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2009.03.035.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Veru, F., Jordan, G., Joober, R., Malla, A., & Iyer, S. (2016). Adolescent vs. adult onset of a first episode psychosis: Impact on remission of positive and negative symptoms. Schizophrenia Research, 174(1–3), 183–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2016.03.035.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vrieze, S. I. (2012). Model selection and psychological theory: A discussion of the differences between the Akaike information criterion (AIC) and the Bayesian information criterion (BIC). Psychological Methods, 17(2), 228–243. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, E., & Bollini, A. M. (2002). Pubertal neurodevelopment and the emergence of psychotic symptoms. Schizophrenia Research, 54(1–2), 17–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0920-9964(01)00347-4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Walker, E., Mittal, V., & Tessner, K. (2008). Stress and the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis in the developmental course of schizophrenia. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4(1), 189–216. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.4.022007.141248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wechsler, D. (1999). Manual for the Wechsler abbreviated intelligence scale (WASI). San Antonio, Texas: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Weinberger, D. R., Berman, K. F., & Zec, R. F. (1986). Physiologic dysfunction of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. I. Regional cerebral blood flow evidence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43(2), 114–124. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1986.01800020020004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, T., Ho, B.-C., Ward, J., O'Leary, D., & Andreasen, N. C. (2006). Neuropsychological performance in first-episode adolescents with schizophrenia: A comparison with first-episode adults and adolescent control subjects. Biological Psychiatry, 60(5), 463–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.01.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, R. G., McCleery, M., Gumley, A. I., & Mulholland, C. (2007). Hopelessness in schizophrenia: The impact of symptoms and beliefs about illness. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 195(12), 968–975. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e31815c1a1d.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, S. N. (2011). Fast stable restricted maximum likelihood and marginal likelihood estimation of semiparametric generalized linear models. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Statistical Methodology), 73(1), 3–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9868.2010.00749.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, S. N. (2017). Generalized additive models: An Introduction with R (2nd ed). New York: CRC Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, L., Byrne, R., Burke, E., Enache, G., & Morrison, A. P. (2017). The impact of stigma on emotional distress and recovery from psychosis: The mediatory role of internalised shame and self-esteem. Psychiatry Research, 255, 94–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2017.05.016.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: PDF

Bridgwater et al. supplementary material

Bridgwater et al. supplementary material

Download Bridgwater et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 582.7 KB