Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T01:42:36.308Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Lachish Fortifications and State Formation in the Biblical Kingdom of Judah in Light of Radiometric Datings

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 April 2019

Yosef Garfinkel ,
Michael G Hasel ,
Martin G Klingbeil ,
Hoo-Goo Kang ,
Gwanghyun Choi ,
Sang-Yeup Chang ,
Soonhwa Hong ,
Saar Ganor ,
Igor Kreimerman  and
Christopher Bronk Ramsey
Yosef Garfinkel*
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeology, the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
Michael G Hasel
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeology, Southern Adventist University, USA
Martin G Klingbeil
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeology, Southern Adventist University, USA
Hoo-Goo Kang
Affiliation:
Seoul Jangsin University, Korea
Gwanghyun Choi
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeology, the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
Sang-Yeup Chang
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeology, the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
Soonhwa Hong
Affiliation:
Institute of Bible Geography of Korea, Korea
Saar Ganor
Affiliation:
Israel Antiquities Authority, Israel
Igor Kreimerman
Affiliation:
Institute of Archaeology, the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
Christopher Bronk Ramsey
Affiliation:
Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, University of Oxford, UK
*
*Corresponding author. Email: garfinkel@mscc.huji.ac.il.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

When and where the process of state formation took place in the biblical kingdom of Judah is heavily debated. Our regional project in the southwestern part of Judah, carried out from 2007 to the present, includes the excavation of three Iron Age sites: Khirbet Qeiyafa, Tel Lachish, and Khirbet al-Ra’i. New cultural horizons and new fortification systems have been uncovered, and these discoveries have been dated by 59 radiometric determinations. The controversial question of when the kingdom was able to build a fortified city at Lachish, its foremost center after Jerusalem, is now resolved thanks to the excavation of a previously unknown city wall, dated by radiocarbon (14C) to the second half of the 10th century BCE.

Keywords

Iron AgeKingdom of JudahKhirbet al-Ra’iKhirbet QeiyafaLachishradiometric chronology
Type
Research Article
Information
Radiocarbon , Volume 61 , Issue 3 , June 2019 , pp. 695 - 712
Copyright
© 2019 by the Arizona Board of Regents on behalf of the University of Arizona 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Aharoni, Y. 1975. Investigations at Lachish: the sanctuary and the residency (Lachish V). Tel Aviv: Gateway Publishers.Google Scholar
Asscher, Y, Lehmann, G, Rosen, SA, Weiner, S, Boaretto, E. 2015. Absolute dating of the Late Bronze to Iron Age Transition and the appearance of Philistine culture in Qubur el-Walaydah, Southern Levant. Radiocarbon 57(1):77–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boaretto, E, Sharon, I, Gilboa, A. 2016. Radiocarbon dating of the Iron Age stratigraphic sequence. In: Bunimovitz, S, Lederman, Z, editors. Tel Beth-Shemesh – a border community in Judah: renewed excavations 1990–2000: The Iron Age. Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University. p. 680–687.Google Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, C. 2009a. Bayesian analysis of radiocarbon dates. Radiocarbon 51(1):337–360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, C. 2009b. Dealing with outliers and offsets in radiometric datings. Radiocarbon 51(3):1023–1045.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bunimovitz, S, Lederman, Z. 2011. Close yet apart: diverse cultural dynamics at Iron Age Beth-Shemesh and Lachish. In: Finkelstein, I, Na’aman, N, editors. The fire signals of Lachish: studies in the archaeology and history of Israel in the Late Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Persian period in honor of David Ussishkin. Winona Lake (IN): Eisenbrauns. p. 33–53.Google Scholar
Faust, A, Sapir, Y. 2018. The “Governor’s Residency” at Tel ‘Eton, the united monarchy, and the impact of the old-house effect on large-scale archaeological reconstructions. Radiocarbon. doi: 10.1017/RDC.2018.10. Open access.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finkelstein, I, Piasetzky, E. 2010. Radiocarbon dating the Iron Age in the Levant. Antiquity 84:374–385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garfinkel, Y. 2017. Khirbet Qeiyafa in the Shephelah: Data and Interpretations. In: Schroer, S, Münger, S, editors. Khirbet Qeiyafa in the Shephelah. Papers Presented at a Colloquium of the Swiss Society for Ancient Near Eastern Studies Held at the University of Bern, September 6, 2014. Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 282:5–59. Fribourg, Switzerland: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Garfinkel, Y, Ganor, G. 2009. Khirbet Qeiyafa. Vol. 1. Excavation report 2007–2008. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Garfinkel, Y, Ganor, S. 2017. Khirbet al-Ra’i: an Iron Age Site in the Judean Shephelah. New Studies on Jerusalem 22:53–66. In Hebrew.Google Scholar
Garfinkel, Y, Ganor, S. 2018. Khirbet al-Ra’i near Lachish. In: Shai, I, e t al., editors. Tell it in Gath: studies in the history and archaeology of Israel. Essays in honor of A. M. Maeir on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday. Ägypten und Altes Testament 90. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. p. 943–955.Google Scholar
Garfinkel, Y, Ganor, S, Hasel, M. 2010. The contribution of Khirbet Qeiyafa to our understanding of the Iron Age Period. Strata: Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society 28:39–54.Google Scholar
Garfinkel, Y, Ganor, S, Hasel, M. 2012. The Iron Age city of Khirbet Qeiyafa after four seasons of excavations. In: Galil, G, et al., editors. The Ancient Near East in the 12th–10th centuries BCE, culture and history. Proceedings of the International Conference held at the University of Haifa, 2–5 May, 2010. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag. p. 149–174.Google Scholar
Garfinkel, Y, Ganor, S, Hasel, MG. 2014. Khirbet Qeiyafa. Vol. 2. The 2009–2013 excavation seasons. Stratigraphy and architecture (areas B, C, D, E). Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Garfinkel, Y, Hasel, MG, Klingbeil, M. 2013. An ending and a beginning: why we’re leaving Qeiyafa and going to Lachish. Biblical Archaeology Review 39/6:44–51.Google Scholar
Garfinkel, Y, Kang, H-G. 2011. The relative and absolute chronology of Khirbet Qeiyafa: very Late Iron Age I or Very Early Iron Age IIA? Israel Exploration Journal 61:171–183.Google Scholar
Garfinkel, Y, Kreimerman, I, Zilberg, P. 2016. Debating Khirbet Qeiyafa: a fortified city in Judah from the time of King David. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Garfinkel, Y, Streit, K, Ganor, S, Hasel, MG. 2012. State formation in Judah: Biblical tradition, modern historical theories and radiometric dates at Khirbet Qeiyafa. Radiocarbon 54:359–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garfinkel, Y, Streit, K, Ganor, S, Hasel, MG. 2015. King David’s city at Khirbet Qeiyafa: results of the second radiocarbon dating project. Radiocarbon 57:881–890.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hasel, MG, Garfinkel, Y, Weiss, S. 2017. Socoh of the Judean Shephelah: the 2010 survey. Winona Lake (IN): Eisenbrauns.Google Scholar
Kang, H-G, Garfinkel, Y. 2009. The Early Iron Age IIA pottery. In: Garfinkel, Y, Ganor, S, editors. Khirbet Qeiyafa. Vol. 1. Excavation report 2007–2008. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society. p. 119–150.Google Scholar
Kang, H-G, Garfinkel, Y. 2018. Khirbet Qeiyafa. Vol. 6. Excavation report 2007–2013. The Iron Age Pottery. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society.Google Scholar
Katz, H, Faust, A. 2014. The chronology of the Iron Age IIA in Judah in the light of Tel ‘Eton Tomb C3 and other assemblages. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 371:103–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keimer, KH, Kreimerman, I, Garfinkel, Y. 2015. From quarry to completion: Hirbet Qeiyafa as a case study in the building of ancient Near Eastern settlements. Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins 131:109–128.Google Scholar
Lehmann, G, Niemann, HM. 2014. When did the Shephelah become Judahite? Tel Aviv 41:77–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levy, TE, Higham, T. 2005. The Bible and radiocarbon dating: archaeology, text and science. Oakville (CT): Equinox.Google Scholar
Mazar, A. 2012. The Iron Age chronology debate: is the gap narrowing? Another viewpoint. Near East Archaeology 74:105–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazar, A, Panitz-Cohen, N. 2001. Timnah (Tel Batash) II: the finds from the first millennium BCE. Jerusalem: Hebrew University, Institute of Archaeology.Google Scholar
Na’aman, N. 2013. The Kingdom of Judah in the 9th Century BCE: text analysis versus archaeological research. Tel Aviv 40:247–276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Niemann, HM. 2011. Observations on the layout of Iron Age Samaria. Ugarit Forschungen 42:325–334.Google Scholar
Reimer, PJ, Bard, E, Bayliss, A, Beck, JW, Blackwell, PG, Ramsey, CB, Buck, CE, Cheng, H, Edwards, RL, Friedrich, M, Grootes, PM, Guilderson, TP, Haflidason, H, Hajdas, I, Hatté, C, Heaton, TJ, Hoffmann, DL, Hogg, AG, Hughen, KA, Kaiser, KF, Kromer, B, Manning, SW, Niu, M, Reimer, RW, Richards, DA, Scott, EM, Southon, JR, Staff, RA, Turney, CSM, Plicht, JVD. 2013. IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0–50,000 years cal BP. Radiocarbon 55(4):1869–1887.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sergi, O. 2013. Judah’s expansion in historical context. Tel Aviv 40:226–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sharon, I, Gilboa, A, Jull, T, Boaretto, E. 2007. Report on the first stage of the Iron Age dating project in Israel: supporting the low chronology. Radiocarbon 49(1):1–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tufnell, O. 1953. Lachish III (Tell ed-Duweir): The Iron Age. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ussishkin, D. 1982. The conquest of Lachish by Sennacherib. Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University.Google Scholar
Ussishkin, D. 2004. The renewed archaeological excavations at Lachish (1973–1994). Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University.Google Scholar
Ussishkin, D. 2015. Gath, Lachish and Jerusalem in 9th Cent. B.C.E. – an archaeological reassessment. Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins 131:129–149.Google Scholar
Weinstein, JM. 1981. The Egyptian empire in Palestine: a reassessment. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 241:1–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yadin, Y. 1980. Was the “Solomonic” city gate at Megiddo built by King Solomon?: a rejoinder. Bulletin of the American Schools of Orient Research 239:19–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zukerman, A, Gitin, S. 2016. A stratigraphic and chronological analysis of the Iron Age I Pottery from Strata VII-IV. In: Dothan, T, Garfinkel, Y, Gitin, S, Field IV lower—the elite zone. Part I. The Iron Age I Early Philistine City. Vol. 9/I. p. 417–439. Winona Lake: Harvard Semitic Museum/Eisenbrauns.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Garfinkel et al. supplementary material

Garfinkel et al. supplementary material 1

Download Garfinkel et al. supplementary material(File)
File 38.5 KB