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Creation, Evolution, and Holy Ghost Religion: Holiness and Pentecostal Responses to Darwinism

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 June 2018

Ronald L. Numbers
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Extract

In the summer of 1926, the Holiness evangelist Andrew Johnson announced the Suspension of his twenty-seven-part attack on “the biological baboon boosters,” serialized in the Pentecostal Herald, so that he could temporarily return to the camp-meeting circuit. No one in the Holiness Community had been agitating more vigorously to “shake the monkey out of the cocoanut tree,” as he described his Crusade, and he wanted to assure his readers that his “lectures against Darwinism and ‘ape to man’ evolution” would never eclipse the gospel of salvation. “There is nothing like an old-fashioned, soul-saving revival of Holy Ghost religion,” declared the bombastic preacher. “So, let it be distinctly understood that the lectures on Evolution are absolutely secondary to the main line work of intense, soul-saving evangelism to which we have been called and in which we expect to remain.”

Type
Research Article
Information
Religion and American Culture , Volume 2 , Issue 2 , Summer 1992 , pp. 127 - 158
Copyright
Copyright © Center for the Study of Religion and American Culture 1992

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References

Notes

This paper was prepared in collaboration with Tim Kruse, who traveled the Midwest in pursuit of pertinent documents and tutored me on the history of Wesleyan theology. The staff and scholars associated with the Wesleyan/Holiness Studies Project—induding Paul Bassett, Dan Bays, Edith Blumhofer, David Bundy, Mel Dieter, Mel Robeck, Susie Stanley, and especially Bill Kostlevy— repeatedly helped me bibliographically and conceptually. Dawn Corley searched the pages of the Pentecostal Herald. Clyde R. Root, of the Hai Bernard Dixon, Jr., Pentecostal Research Center in Cleveland, Tennessee, and Joyce Lee, of the Assemblies of God Archives in Springfield, Missouri, guided me to useful Pentecostal sources.

1. Johnson, Andrew, “The Evolution Artides,” Pentecostal Herald 38 (September 29,1926): 6.Google Scholar

2. The exception is Livingstone, David N., DarwinsForgotten Defenders: The Encounter between Evangelical Theology and Evolutionary Thought (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1987).Google Scholar Although not denominationally oriented, Roberts, Jon H., Darwinism and the Divine in America: Protestant Intellectuals and Organic Evolution, 1859-1900 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988),Google Scholar draws on a number of Methodist sources. Moore, James R., The Post-Darwinian Controversies: A Study of the Protestant Struggle to Come to Terms with Darwin in Great Britain and America, 1870-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979),CrossRefGoogle Scholar mentions Methodists only in passing.

3. See Numbers, Ronald L., “Creationism in 20th-Century America” Science 218 (1982): 538-44;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Numbers, Ronald L., The Creationists (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1992).Google Scholar

4. Johnson, Andrew, “Evolution Outlawed by Sdence [No. 3],” Pentecostal Herald 37 (December 9,1925): 5.Google Scholar See also Johnson, Andrew, “Reply to Dr. E. L. PowelTs Sermon on Evolution,” Pentecostal Herald 34 (March 15,1922): 6.Google Scholar

5. Rice, William North, Twenty-Five Years of Scientific Progress and Other Essays (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1894), 7 Google Scholar and passim. For a similar observation regarding declining Opposition to evolution, by a colleague of Rice's in the biology department at Wesleyan University, see Conn, H. W., Evolution To-Day (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1886), 18.Google Scholar

6. Holifield, E. Brooks, “The English Methodist Response to Darwin,” Methodist History 10 (January, 1972): 22;Google Scholar Windsor Hall Roberts, “The Reaction of the American Protestant Churches to the Darwinian Philosophy, 1860-1900” (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1936), 196. On Methodist reactions to inorganic evolution, see Numbers, Ronald L., Creation by Natural Law: luplace's Nebular Hypothesis in American Thought (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1977), 120-21.Google Scholar

7. Livingstone, Darwin's Forgotten Defenders, 85-91; Rice, Twenty-Five Years of Scientific Progress, 52-53.

8. Townsend, L. T., Collapse of Evolution (New York: American Bible League, 1905), 47;Google Scholar Townsend, L. T., Evolution or Creation: A Critical Review ofthe Scientific and Scriptural Theories of Creation and Certain Related Sübjects (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1896), 133-34, 154;Google Scholar Townsend, L. T., Adam and Eve: History or Myth? (Boston: Chapple, 1904), 83;Google Scholar A. C. Dixon to G. F. Wright, May 16 and 24, 1910, G. F. Wright Papers, Oberlin College Archives. For biographical detail, see Moore, Post-Darwinian Controversies, 198-99.

9. See, e.g., Pierson, Arthur T., “Many Infallible Proofs”: The Evidences of Christianity; or, The Written and Living Word of God (London: Morgan and Scott, n.d.), 109-26,Google Scholar by a Presbyterian fellow traveler; Foster, Randolph S., Creation: God in Time and Space, vol. 4 of Studies in Theology (New York: Hunt and Eaton, 1895), 26–36,Google Scholar by a Methodist bishop sympathetic to the Holiness revival; and Woodard, Luke, What Is Truth? (Auburn, N.Y: Knapp, Peck and Thomson, 1901), 131-57,Google Scholar by a Quaker with Holiness leanings. See also Luke Woodard, Evolution: Unscientific and Antibiblical (n.p., n.d.). On the attitude of Holiness Friends toward evolution, see Hamm, Thomas D., The Transformation of American Quakerism: Orthodox Friends, 1800-1907 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1988), 109.Google Scholar For a critical view of efforts to harmonize Genesis and geology, by a Wesleyan Methodist physician, see Hunt, John Bingham, Genesis and Geology: Fact versus Fiction (Syracuse, N.Y.: Wesleyan Methodist Publishing Assn., 1901), 3–4.Google Scholar The reference to “Holy Ghost religion” comes from Godbey, W. B., Bible Astronomy (Louisville, Ky: Pentecostal Publishing Co., n.d.), 3.Google Scholar

10. Godbey, Bible Astronomy, 7-8; W. B. Godbey, Man the Climax of Creation (n.p., n.d.), 3-7; Godbey, W. B., Regenerated Earth (Greensboro, N.C.: Apostolic Messenger Office, n.d.), 3–5.Google Scholar Because Godbey turned eighty before the outbreak of World War I, I assume he wrote these undated pamphlets by that time.

11. Moore, L. N., “Original Sin and Evolution” Christian Witness and Advocate of Bible Holiness 28 (January 13,1898): 2–3.Google Scholar On Conklin, see Atkinson, J. W., “E. G. Conklin on Evolution: The Populär Writings of an Embryologist” Journal of the History of Biology 18 (1985): 31–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

12. Annual Minutes of the Thirty-Eight Conferences of the Free Methodist Church (Chicago: Free Methodist Publishing House, 1903), 79; Beers, Adelaide Lionne, The Romance of a Consecrated Life: A Biography of Alexander Beers (Chicago: Free Methodist Publishing House, 1922), 318.Google Scholar

13. Bassett, Paul Merritt, ‘The Fundamentalist Leavening of the Holiness Movement, 1914-1940: The Church of the Nazarene: A Case Study,” Wesleyan Theological Journal 13 (1978): 65–91.Google Scholar

14. 'The General Holiness Convention,” Pentecostal Herald 35 (October 17,1923): 4. Emphasis added.

15. “Wherein the Evolutionists and the Tongues’ People Are Alike,” Free Methodist 68 (August 23, 1935): 4-5. Two Holiness churches, the Church of God (Anderson) and the Salvation Army, generally avoided the issue in the 1920% although the Handbook of Salvation Army Doctrine (New York: The Salvation Army, 1923) included a section “The Origin of Man,” 46-49, which affirmed belief in the Genesis account. I am indebted to Roger J. Green (Salvation Army) and Merle D. Strege (Church of God) for information about these denominations. In contrast, the tiny Church of God (Holiness), centered in Missouri and Kansas, repeatedly denounced Darwinism in The Church Herald and Holiness Banner; see Clarence Eugene Cowen, “A History of the Church of God (Holiness),” (Ph.D. diss., University of Missouri, 1948), 171-73. Membership data for Holiness churches in 1926 are found in Jones, Charles Edwin, Perfectionist Persuasion: The Holiness Movement and American Methodism, 1867-1936 (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1974), 210.Google Scholar

16. Ellyson, E. P., Is Man an Animal? (Kansas City, Mo.: Nazarene Publishing House, 1926);Google Scholar Miller, Basil W. and Harding, U. E., “Cunningly Devised Fahles”: Modernism Exposed and Refuted (n.p., [1925]), 17,26,129.Google Scholar See also Ellyson, E. R, Doctrinal Studies (Kansas City, Mo.: Nazarene Publishing House, [1936]), 63–68.Google Scholar For the publication history of the Miller and Harding book, see Bassett, “The Fundamentalist Leavening of the Holiness Movement,” 77-78.

17. “Rev. B. T. Roberts on Evolution,” Free Methodist 58 (April 7, 1925): 11; Price, G. M., “Two Startling Fossils that Confound Evolution,” Free Methodist 59 (April 6,1926): 5,10-11.Google Scholar An index to the Free Methodist is available at the Historical Center, Free Methodist Headquarters, Winona Lake, Indiana. I am grateful to Fran Haslam for her help in using the records at the Center. Price's biggest Holiness boosters were Arthur K. White and Ray B. White, sons of the founder of the Pillar of Fire movement and authors of A Toppling Idol —Evolution (Zarephath, N.J.: PillarofFire, 1933).

18. “The Controversy Continues,” Wesleyan Methodist 84 (August 24, 1927): 1; Watson, George D., God's First Words: Studies in Genesis: Historie, Prophetic and Experimental (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1919), 17.Google Scholar Advertisements for Bryan's books appeared in the May 9, 1928, and January 16, 1929, issues of the Wesleyan Methodist. Daniel L. Burnett, Director of Archives, International Center— The Wesleyan Church, Indianapolis, provided assistance in locating Wesleyan Methodist materials.

19. Shadduck, B. H., Jocko-Homo: The Heaven-Bound King of the Zoo (Louisville, Ky: Pentecostal Publishing Co., n.d.), 1–2;Google Scholar Shadduck, B. H., Puddle to Paradise (Rogers, Ohio: Jocko-Homo Publishing Co., 1925);Google Scholar Shadduck, B. H., Rastus Augustus Explains Evolution (Rogers, Ohio: Jocko-Homo Publishing Co., 1928), 2.Google Scholar See also, e.g., Johnson, J. Thos., “Science Falsely So-Called,” Pilgrim Holiness Advocate 5 (August 20,1925): 1.Google Scholar

20. Synan, Vinson, The Old-Time Power (Franklin Springs, Ga.: Advocate Press, 1973), 187;Google Scholar Kenneth Wireman, “A Comparative Study of the Effect of the Teaching of Biology on Student Attitüde toward Organic Evolution in Assemblies of God Church Schools” (Ph.D. diss., University of Utah, 1971), 53-54. See also Klink, Otto J., VJhy I Am Not An Evolutionist (Springfield, Mo.: Gospel Publishing House, 1931),Google Scholar by an Assemblies of God evangelist; and Williams, William A., The Evolution ofMan Scientißcally Disproved in 50 Arguments (Camden, N.J.: William A. Williams, 1928),Google Scholar by an educator whose wife was an Assemblies of God minister. An index to the Pentecostal Evangel is available at the Assemblies of God Archives in Springfield, Missouri.

21. Synan, The Old-Time Power, 186-87; George Floyd Taylor, “Exposition on Genesis 1-3,” manuscript in the Emmanuel College Library, Franklin Springs, Georgia. The Pentecostal Holiness Advocate published this manuscript in twenty-eight parts beginning with the vol. 15, January 14,1932, issue and ending with the vol. 16, July 21,1932, issue. I am grateful to Jeff Trexler for bringing this document to my attention and to Rachel Howard for making a copy available to me.

22. Robeck, C. M., Jr., “Aimee Semple McPherson,” in Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, ed. Burgess, Stanley M. and McGee, Gary B. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1988), 568;Google Scholar There Is a Godl Debate between Aimee Semple McPherson, Fundamentalist, and Charles Lee Smith, Atheist (Los Angeles: Foursquare Publications, [1934]).

23. “Opposition of Science Falsely So-Called,” Church of God Evangel 10 (June 28,1919): 1-2.

24. [Morrison, H. C.], “The Coming Controversy,” Pentecostal Herald 33 (October 19,1921): 1,8.Google Scholar On Morrison, see Wesche, Percival A., Henry Clay Morrison: Crusader Saint (Berne, Ind.: Herald Press, 1963);Google Scholar and Dieter, Melvin E., “Henry Clay Morrison” in Encyclopedia of Religion in the South, ed. Hill, Samuel S. (Macon, Ga.: Mercer University Press, 1984), 514-15.Google Scholar By 1928, the number of antievolution articles in the Pentecostal Herald had dropped precipitously, although Morrison included evolution among the themes he planned to emphasize that year; Morrison, H. C., “Suggestive Themes for Discussion in the Herald Next Year,” Pentecostal Herald 40 (January 4,1928): 8.Google Scholar On Johnson, see Gatewood, Willard B., Jr., Preachers, Pedagogues, and Politicians: The Evolution Controversy in North Carolina, 1920-1927 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966), 192;Google Scholar and an untitled note in the Pentecostal Herald 39 (February 2, 1927): 6. Large sections of Johnson's “Evolution Outlawed by Science” were recycled under the title “Fatal Gaps in Evolution” in the American Holiness Journal in 1949-50.

25. On Bryan, see, e.g., Wray, Newton, “In Memoriam—William Jennings Bryan,” Pentecostal Herald 38 (June 2,1926): 3, 6;Google Scholar and Wimberly, C. F., “Modern Apostles of Faith, Chapter XXVII: William Jennings Bryan,” Pentecostal Herald 39 (September 21, 1927): 3–6.Google Scholar During the early 1920's, Bryan's byline frequently appeared in the Herald. On Townsend, see Morrison, H. C., “A Foreword,” Pentecostal Herald 33 (August 24, 1921): 8;Google Scholar Morrison, H. C., “The Collapse of Evolution,” Pentecostal Herald 34 (March 8,1922): 5;Google Scholar and Morrison, H. C., “The Collapse of Evolution,” Pentecostal Herald 41 (May 15,1929): 8.Google Scholar

26. Morrison, H. C., “The Collapse of Evolution,” Pentecostal Herald 41 (May 15, 1929): 8;Google Scholar Robinson, Chas. E., The Not-Ashamed Club (Springfield, Mo.: Gospel Publishing Assn., 1927), 80–85.Google Scholar I am indebted to Mel Robeck for bringing this story to my attention. See also Pickett, L. L., “Evolution: Part III,” Pentecostal Herald 38 (January 6,1926): 3.Google Scholar

27. Miller and Harding, “Cunningly Devised Fables,” 110-11; E. G. Burritt to C. A. Blanchard, n.d., and J. L. Brasher to C. A. Blanchard, April 23,1919, both in the Charles A. Blanchard Papers, Wheaton College Archives. Andrew Johnson repeatedly attacked Methodist Colleges in his series “Methodist and Modern Thought,” which appeared in vol. 33 of the Pentecostal Herald; see, e.g., Part II (August 3,1921): 4; Part III (August 10,1921): 5; and Part VII (September 7,1921):4. See also [Morrison, H. C.], “Unsdentific Teaching,” Pentecostal Herold 34 (August 23,1922): 1.Google Scholar

28. [Morrison, H. C.], “Will It Stand the Scientific Text?” Pentecostal Herald 34 (August 2, 1922): 8;Google Scholar Gatewood, Preachers, Pedagogues, and Politicians, 79-80; Bailey, Kenneth K., Southern White Protestantism in the Twentieth Century (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), 53–54;Google Scholar Morrison, H. C., “An Open Letter to My Dear Bishop,” Pentecostal Herald 39 (May 11,1927): 1,8.Google Scholar

29. Paul Merritt Bassett, “Culture and Concupiscence: The Changing Definition of Sanctity in the American Holiness Movement, 1867-1920,” unpublished paper presented to the Scholars Seminar of the Wesleyan/Holiness Study Project, Shakertown, Kentucky, June 9, 1990; “Attention! Carolina Bible Training School,” Bible Student 1 (April-June, 1926): 1. See also B[ridwell], C. W., “Colorado Methodism and Counterfeit Holiness,” Rocky Mountain Pillar of Fire 6 (February 15,1905): 6–7,Google Scholar and accompanying cartoon on 1.

30. Johnson, Andrew, “Methodism and Modern Thought [No. 9],” Pentecostal Herald 33 (October 12,1921): 7;Google Scholar Morrison, H. C., “Evolutionists in Trouble,” Pentecostal Herald 35 (August 15,1923): 8–9;Google Scholar [Morrison, H. C.], “The Anti-Darwin Bill,” Pentecostal Herald 34 (March 8,1922): 1.Google Scholar

31. Ellyson, Is Man an Animal?, 62; Ridout, G. W., Dr. Fosdick Answered: An Expose of Christian Liberalism (Louisville, Ky.: Pentecostal Publishing Co., n.d.), 9;Google Scholar Morrison, H. C., “Destructive Criticism and the Second Coming of Christ: A Series of Open Letters to Dr. Geo. P. Mains: Fourteenth Letter,” Pentecostal Herald 33 (March 9, 1921): 9;Google Scholar Johnson, Andrew, “Methodism and Modern Thought [No.l],” Pentecostal Herald 33 (July 20, 1921): 4;Google Scholar Broughton, Len G., “The New Way,” Pentecostal Herald 38 (July 21,1926): 4.Google Scholar

32. Morrison, H. C., “An Open Letter to a Young Preacher [No. 9],” Pentecostal Herald 38 (October 27, 1926): 1, 8;Google Scholar Pickett, L. L., God or the Guessers: Some Strictures on Present Day Infidelity (Louisville, Ky: Pentecostal Publishing Co., 1926), 11.Google Scholar

33. Johnson, Andrew, “Evolution Outlawed by Science [No. 23],” Pentecostal Herald 38 (May 26,1926): 4;Google Scholar Johnson, Andrew and Pickett, L. L., Postmillennialism and the Higher Critics (Chicago: Glad Tidings Publishing Co., n.d.), 50.Google Scholar On Johnson's knowledge of biology, see the letter from H. G. Baker, assistant professor of biology at Southwestern University, to Johnson, reprinted in “Evolution Outlawed by Science [No. 2],” Pentecostal Herald 37 (December 2,1925): 3.

34. Johnson, Andrew, “Evolution Outlawed by Science [No. 26],” Pentecostal Herald 38 (June 30,1926): 4;Google Scholar Morrison, H. C., “Destructive Criticism and the Second Coming of Christ… Twenty-First Letter,” Pentecostal Herald 33 (May 11, 1921): 8;Google Scholar Higgs, A. R., “The Age of the Universe,” Pentecostal Herald 40 (March 28, 1928): 5;Google Scholar Johnson, Andrew, “Evolution Outlawed by Science [No. 5],” Pentecostal Herald 37 (December 23,1925): 4.Google Scholar See also Pickett, L. L., “In the Beginning—God— Gen. 1:1,” Pentecostal Herald 38 (April 7,1926): 5.Google Scholar

35. Steel, S. A., “The Menace of Rationalism,” Pentecostal Herald 33 (November 2,1921): 9;Google Scholar Steel, Samuel A., The Modern Theory ofthe Bible (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1921), 6–7,Google Scholar 75, 84, 87-89,96. See also Steel, S. A., “The Holiness Movement,” Revivalist 6 (May 1893): 1.Google Scholar For biographical Information, see “Samuel Augustus Steel (1849-1934)” in Encyclopedia of World Methodism, ed. Nolan B. Harmon (Nashville: United Methodist Publishing House, 1974), 2241-43. For a typical reference to LeConte, see Johnson, Andrew, “Evolution Outlawed by Science [No. 3],” Pentecostal Herald 37 (December 9,1925): 9.Google Scholar

36. Broughton, “The New Way,” 4-5.

37. Townsend, Collapse of Evolution, 47-53; Curtis, W. C., “Three Letters Bearing upon the Controversy over Evolution,” Science 61 (1925): 648;CrossRefGoogle Scholar Fleischmann, Albert, “The Doctrine of Organic Evolution in the Light of Modern Research,” Journal ofthe Transactions ofthe Victoria Institute 65 (1933): 194–214.Google Scholar

38. Pickett, God or the Guessers, 19; Johnson, Andrew, “Evolution Outlawed by Science [No. 7],” Pentecostal Herald 38 (January 13, 1926): 4;Google Scholar Johnson, Andrew, “Evolution Outlawed by Science [No. 26],” Pentecostal Herald 38 (June 30, 1926): 9.Google Scholar For a typical list, see Wimberly, C. F., “Evolution—-Ten Reasons Why I Do Not Believe It,” Pentecostal Herald 37 (November 4,1924): 4.Google Scholar

39. Bole, S. J., Confessions of a College Professor (Los Angeles: Biola Book Room, 1922), 43.Google Scholar For biographical information, I have relied primarily on Scott, Franklin W., ed., The Semi-Centennial Alumni Record of the University of Illinois (Champaign-Urbana: University of Illinois, 1918), 749;Google Scholar and Bole's personnel file at Wheaton College.

40. Bole, S. J., The Modern Triangle: Evolution, Philosophy and Criticism (Los Angeles: Bible Institute of Los Angeles, 1926), 13;Google Scholar Ridout, George W., “Two Notable Books,” Pentecostal Herald 38 (July 28,1926): 9.Google Scholar

41. Bole, S. J., The Battlefield of Faith (University Park, Iowa: College Press, 1940).Google Scholar Bole's troubles at Wheaton are described in J. Oliver Buswell, Jr., to R. C. McQuilkin, November 20,1933, in Bole's personnel file at Wheaton College. For the views of the president of John Fletcher College, see Butler, C. W., Evolution as a Theory or the Bible as a Tried Authority —Which? (Chicago: Christian Witness, n.d.).Google Scholar

42. D. J. Whitney to G. M. Price, December 11,1935, Price Papers, Heritage Room, James White Library, Andrews University. On the RSA, see Numbers, “Creationism in 20th-Century America,” 541.

43. D. J. Whitney to G. M. Price, September 21,1936, Price Papers; D. J. Whitney to J. C. Whitcomb, Jr., September 5,1957, courtesy of John C. Whitcomb, Jr.

44. G. M. Price to E. S. Ballenger, April 20, 1927, and January 30,1928, both courtesy of Donald Mote; D. J. Whitney to L. A. Higley, August 13,1935, and D. J. Whitney to Byron C. Nelson, August 26, 1935, both in the Nelson Papers, Institute for Creation Research. On Higley, see National Cyclopedia of American Biography, 43:363.

45. Molleurus Couperus to W. J. Tinkle, April 19, 1944, courtesy of Molleurus Couperus; W. J. Tinkle to G. M. Price, January 4,1940, Price Papers.

46. F. Alton Everest, “The American Scientific Affiliation: Its Growth and Early Development,” unpublished manuscript in the ASA Collection, Wheaton College Archives, especially Appendix 26, which duplicates the program for the second annual Convention; Tinkle, William J. and Lammerts, Walter E., “Biology and Creation,” in Modern Science and Christian Faith, by Members of the American Scientific Affiliation (3rd printing; Wheaton, IU.: Van Kampen Press, 1950), 58–97.Google Scholar Denominational affiliations are given in Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation 3 (September 1951): vii. In 1960, the ASA met at Seattle Pacific College; in 1961, at Houghton College; in 1963, at Asbury College; and, in 1974, at Bethany Nazarene College. I am indebted to Mark Kalthoff for loaning me a copy of the Everest manuscript.

47. C. M. Ward, “A Former Evolutionist Now Teaches: ‘God Did It!’ ” Pentecostal Evangel (July 11,1976): 14-15; an advertisement for the booklet God Did It! appears on 15. For Ward's own views, see Ward, C. M., No Man Gin Make a Seed (Springfield, Mo.: Assemblies of God, 1969).Google Scholar On the birth of the CRS, see Numbers, “Creationism in 20th-Century America” 542. Members of the steering committee are identified in the first issue of the Creation Research Society Quarterly 1 (July 1964): [13]. John N. Moore, who later joined an independent Bible church, outüned his religious history in a telephone interview on November 10,1990.

48. Bainbridge, William Sims and Stark, Rodney, “Superstitions: Old and New” Skeptical Inquirer 4 (Summer 1980): 20;Google Scholar James F. Gregory, review of The Genesis Flood, by John C. Whitcomb, Jr. and Henry M. Morris, Free Methodist 94 (October 17, 1961): 14; Paine, S. Hugh, review of The Genesis Flood, by Whitcomb, John C., Jr. and Morris, Henry M., Wesleyan Methodist 119 (June 7, 1961): 14;Google Scholar Paine, S. Hugh, Jr., “In the Beginning, God Created,” Houghton Milieu 54 (March 1979): 2–7;Google Scholar S. Hugh Paine to Ronald L. Numbers, November 10, 1989. After the appearance of The Genesis Flood, Morris gave an invited lecture at Houghton College; Morris, Henry M., A History of Modern Creationism (San Diego, Calif.: Master Books, 1984), 161.Google Scholar In the 1963 survey reported by Bainbridge and Stock, only 57 percent of Church of God members expressed Opposition to human evolution.

49. Hamann, Cecil B. and Ray, J. Paul, “Progressive Creationism,” Good News 15 (March-April 1982): 12–14;Google Scholar Cecil B. Hamann, videotaped “Lectures on Paleontology and Early Man,” 1982, in the Asbury College Archives; interviews with John Brushaber, James Behnke, and William Toll, March 20, 1989. Information about early faculty and courses comes from the Asbury College Bulletins, found in the Asbury College Archives. Hamann gave The Genesis Flood a surprisingly positive review in Recent Books: A Quarterly Review for Ministers 3 (October-December 1961): 45. In his autobiography, Ten College Generations (New York: American Press, 1956), Jay B. Kenyon does not mention having once taught chemistry and biology. I am indebted to Ivan Zabilka for information about Hamann.

50. Morris, A History of Modern Creationism, 259; interview with Henry M. Morris and Duane Gish, October 26, 1980; Turner Collins and Gary Liddle, unpublished syllabus for a “Seminar in Science and Religion” offered at Evangel College, spring 1979; Thurman, L. Duane, How to Think about Evolution and Other Bible-Science Controversies (Downers Grove, 111.: InterVarsity Press, 1978);Google Scholar Myrtle M. Fleming, “Evolution: Do We Know What We Are Talking About?” unpublished paper read at the Society for Pentecostal Studies, Des Moines, Iowa, November 5, 1971, and deposited in the Hai Bernard Dixon, Jr., Pentecostal Research Center, Lee College. On Fleming, see Synan, Vinson, Emmanuel College: The First Fifiy Years, 1919-1969 (Franklin Springs, Ga.: Emmanuel College Library, 1969), 112.Google Scholar See also the published proceedings of a 1977 Bible-Science Symposium sponsored by Lee College; CBannon, Robert H., Beach, Lois, and Daugherty, J. Patrick, eds., Science and Theology: Friends or Foes? (Cleveland, Tenn.: Pathway Press, 1977).Google Scholar

51. Haines, Lee, ‘The Book of Genesis” in The Wesleyan Bible Commentary, 6 vols. (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1967), 1:21–28.Google Scholar

52. Livingston, George Herbert, “Genesis,” in Beacon Bible Commentary, 10 vols. (Kansas City, Mo.: Beacon Hill Press, 1969), 1:32–33, 56-60.Google Scholar See also Wiley, H. Orton, Christian Theology, vol. 1 (Kansas City, Mo.: Kingshighway Press, 1940), 455-68.Google Scholar

53. Carpenter, Eugene F., “Cosmology,” in A Contemporary Wesleyan Theology: Biblical, Systematic, and Practical, 2 vols. (Grand Rapids: Francis Asbury Press, 1983), 1:177-78.Google Scholar In the chapter “Anthropology” in Contemporary Wesleyan Theology, 1:196-98, Charles W. Carter defended the Special creation of humans. Carpenter's criticism of Wiley incorrectly gives the impression that the Nazarene theologian chose the gap theory over other interpretations of Genesis, but he wrote equally positively about the day-age theory; see Wiley, Christian Theology, 1:465.

54. Wesley, John, Explanatory Notes upon the Old Testament (Bristol: William Pine, 1765), 1:6, 9;Google Scholar Wesley, John, “Remarks on the Count de Buffon's ‘Natural History” in The Works ofjohn Wesley, 14 vols. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1958), 13:452;Google Scholar John Wesley, “God's Approbation of His Works” Works of John Wesley, 4:213; Hardie, Alexander, Evolution: Is It Philosophical, Scientific or Scriptural? (Los Angeles: Times-Mirror Press, 1924), 222;Google Scholar Candler, Warren A., “John Wesley and Evolution” Pentecostal Herald 37 (November 25, 1925): 4.Google Scholar On Wesley as a protoevolutionist, see Collier, Frank W., John Wesley among the Scientists (New York: Abingdon Press, 1928), 170-74.Google Scholar See also Clarke, Adam, The Holy Bible, Containing the Old and New Testaments … with a Commentary and Critical Notes (New York: Methodist Episcopal Church, 1932).Google Scholar Among the Holiness theologians to cite Clarke was Wiley, Christian Theology, 1:459-61. Andrew Johnson, in his series “Methodism and Modern Thought [No. 1],” Pentecostal Herald 33 (July 20,1921): 4, appealed to Clarke in support of the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch. Randy L. Maddox kindly directed me to several pertinent sources.

55. Glenn Petersen, “How Did the Mammoths Get to Alaska?” Light and Life (February 1964): 8; Ira Edwards, “Science Won't Prove Faith,” Light and Life (February 1964): 14-15. See also the cluster of articles on creationism in Good News 15 (March-April 1982), published by evangelical Methodists in Wilmore, Kentucky: A. B. Broderson, “What's All This Fuss about Evolution and Creation?” 8-17; Cecil B. Hamann and J. Paul Ray, “Progressive Creationism,” 12-14; and James V. Heidinger II, “Church & State: How Much Separation?” 31-35.

56. Dake, Finis Jennings, Dake's Annotated Reference Bible (Lawrenceville, Ga.: Dake Bible Sales, 1963), 54–57;Google Scholar Swaggart, Jimmy Ministries, The Pre-Adamic Creation & Evolution (Baton-Rouge, La.: Jimmy Swaggart Ministries, 1986);Google Scholar Sumrall, Lester, Genesis: Crucible of the Universe (South Bend, Ind.: LESEA Publishing, 1982), 23;Google Scholar Hagin, Kenneth E., The Origin and Operations of Demons, 2d ed. (Tulsa, Okla.: Kenneth Hagin Ministries, 1987), 5;Google Scholar Lindsay, Gordon, The Bible Is a Scientific Book (Dallas: Christ for the Nations, 1971), 20–28;Google Scholar Lindsay, Gordon, Evolution —The Incredible Hoax (1961; repr., Dallas: Christ for the Nations, 1973);Google Scholar Parham, Charles F., A Voice Crying in the Wilderness, 4th ed. (Baxter Springs, Kans.: Robert L. Parham, 1944), 81–85.Google Scholar On Dake, see P. H. Alexander, “Finis Jennings Dake (1902-87)” in Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, 235-36. On the continuing popularity of the gap theory, see Mclver, Tom, “Formless and Void: Gap Theory Creationism,” Creation/Evolution 24 (Fall 1988): 1–24.Google Scholar Henry M. Morris's view of charismatic behavior is docümented in his letter to J. C. Whitcomb, Jr., October 3,1964, courtesy of John C. Whitcomb, Jr.

57. John C. Whitcomb, Jr., “How Did God Make Man?” Pentecostal Evangel (April 23, 1967): 12-13, 27; “Researchers Show Earth Is Not Billions of Years Old,” Pentecostal Evangel (October 29,1978): 24; Hornbaker, H. Wayne, “Science Supports the Bible,” Pentecostal Evangel (September 14, 1980): 8–9;Google Scholar “Former Evolutionist Says Many Scientists Are Helping Spur 'Modern-Day' Revival,” Pentecostal Evangel (May 2, 1982): 12; Walker, Paul L., Understanding the Bible and Science (Cleveland, Tenn.: Pathway Press, 1976), 44–49;Google Scholar Phillips, Wade H., God, the Church, and Revelation (Cleveland, Tenn.: White Wing Publishing House, 1986), n.p.;Google Scholar Dennis Lindsay, unpublished syllabus for the course “Scientific Creationism,” Christ for the Nations Institute, 1986; Pratney, Winkie, Creation or Evolution? (Glendale, Calif.: Church Press, n.d.);Google Scholar Pratney, Winkie, “Creation or Evolution?” in The Last Days Collection: A Treasury of Articles from Last Days Ministries (Lindale, Tex.: Pretty Good Publishing, 1988), 162-87.Google Scholar Pratney's scientific training is mentioned on 14 of Last Days Collection. I am indebted to Paul Boyer for this edition of Pratney's work, which also circulated as a series of tracts. The Assemblies of God position on creation appears in a Statement adopted by the General Presbytery in 1977 and published in pamphlet form as The Doctrine of Creation (Springfield, Mo.: Gospel Publishing House, 1977).

58. Seile, Robert L., “No Evolute,” Pentecostal Herald 38 (September 22, 1926): 6;Google Scholar H. C. Morrison quoted in Wesche, Henry Clay Morrison, 143; Johnson, “The Evolution Articles,” 6.