A History of Early Buddhism

John Ross Carter

doi:10.1017/S0034412500010064

A History of Early Buddhism

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 October 2008

John Ross Carter

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John Ross Carter: Affiliation:
Assistant Professor of Philosophy and Religion, Chapel House, Colgate University

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This article has developed in response to a series of observations made over a decade ago by Wilfred Cantwell Smith in his The Meaning and End of Religion. In that work, Smith made the point that the concepts ‘religion’, ‘religions’, ‘Hinduism’ and ‘Buddhism’ are rather recent, of Western origin, and, in an attempt to understand mankind's religiousness, inadequate. In developing his argument, Smith considered the Buddhist case with penetrating insight but, because his thesis was of such comprehensive scope, chose not to go into a detailed consideration of relevant matters in the Theravāda Buddhist tradition.

Type: Research Article
Information: Religious Studies , Volume 13 , Issue 3 , September 1977 , pp. 263 - 287

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0034412500010064 [Opens in a new window]
Copyright: Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1977

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References

^{page 263 note 1} Smith, Wilfred Cantwell, The Meaning and End of Religion; A New Approach to the Religious Traditions of Mankind (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1962). This work was later issued in a paperback edition as a Mentor Book (New York: The New American library, 1964).Google Scholar

^{page 263 note 2} Ibid. chapter v.

^{page 263 note 3} Ibid. chapter III.

^{page 263 note 4} Ibid. (1962), p. 58; (1964), p. 56.Google Scholar

^{page 263 note 5} In 1896, the following sentences were published: ‘But what is meant by religion? The word, as is well known (my italics), is not found in languages not related to our own, and its derivation is uncertain.’ Davids, T. W. Rhys, Buddhism: Its History and Literature, ‘American Lectures on the History of Religion, First Series, 1894–1895’ (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1896), p. 1.Google Scholar

^{page 263 note 6} See ibid., p. 38, where Davids, T. W. Rhys, having decided to continue using the term ‘religion’ and in the process to attempt to broaden its meaning in the light of data drawn from other religious traditions, says ‘But I have considered it my duty to bring out into as clear a relief as possible the points most essential to a right understanding of what we [sic] call Buddhism, and what the founder of that religion called the Dhamma, that is the Law, or the Norm.’ In 1903, T. W. Rhys Davids reminded his readers that ‘the people we now call Buddhists (they did not call themselves so) were concerned so exclusively with the Dhamma…that their doctrine was called the Dhamma.’ Buddhist India (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1903), p. 294Google Scholar. Davids, C. A. F. Rhys, in 1932, noted that around 1802, about the time of the Treaty of Amiens, ‘the words Buddhism, Buddhist [she is speaking of English words knowing quite well that bauddha carries the force of ‘Buddhist’] came into use. It took some time before the spelling of these terms was settled.’ A Manual of Buddhism: For Advanced Students (London: The Sheldon Press, 1932), p. 5.Google Scholar

^{page 264 note 1} A discussion of the term samaya occurs at DhsA. 57 ff. See The Expositor (Atthasālini), vol. I, trans. by Tin, Pe Maung, edited and revised by Mrs Davids, Rhys (London: The Pali Text Society, 1958), pp. 76–82. [A list of abbreviations appears at the end of this article.]Google Scholar

^{page 266 note 1} It is possible that this verse comprised a part of what might have been an early form of the pātimokkham. See Māhapadānasutta, D.II.49. The verse occurs agahin in the Dhammapada, vs. 183.

^{page 266 note 2} See, for example, Thag. vss. 24, 181, 204, 212, 220. Ud. 57.

^{page 266 note 3} Bu.III.23; See ThagA.II.84 on Thag. vs. 220, ThagA.1.85 on Thag. vs. 24, SA.III.200. See also Sdpj.I.147 on Nd.I.ii.40 (on Sn. vs. 775); AA.III.170 on A.II.185.

^{page 266 note 4} Sn. 933, 1084. Nd.I.ii.399 on Sn. 933 glosses sāsane Gotamassa by noting ‘Gotamasāsane buddhasāsane jinasāsane tathāgatasāsane devasāsane arahantasāsane…’

^{page 266 note 5} See, for example, UdA. 309 on Ud. 57. Note also that when dhamma is used as a designation for the 37 bodhipakkhiyadhammā, as at S.III.96, the commentary (SA.II.306) glosses dhamma as sāsanadhamma and at SA.III.200, dhammavinaya is considered a term designating the sāsana of the Teacher. See also UdA. 309 where sāsana is glossed by reference to sīla, samādhi, and pan¯n¯ā.

^{page 266 note 6} See, for example, Thag. vs. 181.

^{page 267 note 1} See Pj.II.ii.591 (on Sn. 1056)where the commentator glosses ‘right here’ with ‘in just this s¯sana or in just this present existence’. See also Pj.II.ii.433 (on Sn. 536) where the gloss is ‘who, in this sāsana.…’

^{page 267 note 2} Some Sinhalese Buddhists have suggested that brahmacariya parallels the notion ‘religion’. See Smith, op. cit., note 19, to Chapter Three (1962), p. 249, (1964), p. 240.Google Scholar

^{page 267 note 3} See Pj.II.ii.489 (on Sn. vs. 693).

^{page 267 note 4} ‘“idh” eva sāsane ayam dhammo na ito bahiddā' ti.’ The commentary takes dhamma as both nibbāna and the path, magga.

^{page 267 note 5} Mhv.XI.34. This passage is quoted at PūjāV. p. 759. See Mhvt., pp. 307–8.Google Scholar

^{page 267 note 6} ‘…budusasnehi śraddhāvanta upasikāvarum.…” PūjāV. p. 365. On the notion of demonstrating a quality of faith in the sāsana, see also Cūl.I.54, vs: 17 ‘…so rājā pasanno buddhasāsane….’ and Cūl.II.90 vs. 36. See Candavimala, Rērukāne, Pāramitā Prakaranaya, Maradana (Colombo: Anula, 1966), p. 232Google Scholar. where he notes the buddhasāsana is comprised of bhikksu, bhiksunīs, upāsakas, upāsikās.

^{page 268 note 1} See Mhbv. p. 73 and also Cūl.II.89, vs. 70.Google Scholar

^{page 268 note 2} See the parallel glosses for ‘honors dhamma’ and ‘delight in the sāsana’ at DAG. p. 12 (on DhpA.1.14).Google Scholar

^{page 268 note 3} As at DAG. p. 29 (on DhpA.1.47) and DAG. p. 37 (on DhpA.1.76).Google Scholar

^{page 268 note 4} Mhbv., p. 91Google Scholar; Sdhs., p. 24.Google Scholar

^{page 268 note 5} I am aware that the Mahāvamsa is the technically correct title for the entire work but since the references are to the PTS edition I have kept W. Geiger's divisions of Mahāvamsa and Cūlavamsa.

^{page 268 note 6} This, of course, is not to say such tendencies are met at every occurrence of the term sāsana. At Cūl.I.44, vs. 10 a king gives an order, sāsana, and four verses later, vs. 114, it is said he went forth into the sāsana.

^{page 268 note 7} Mhv.xxv.1–3.

^{page 268 note 8} See D.II.72 ff.

^{page 268 note 9} See above, p. 266, the verse from D.II.49 and Dhp. vs. 183.Google Scholar

^{page 268 note 10} Cūl.1.38, vs. 27.

^{page 269 note 1} Geiger, Wilhelm, Cūl.Tr. Part I, note I, p. 32. Burlingame was also aware of some shift in the import of sāsana and chose to translate it with ‘religion’ in Buddhist Legends (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1921), 1.149Google Scholar, and on page 151 he proposed ‘the Religion of the Buddha’ for buddhasāsana. He was translating from DhpA.I.5 and DhpA.1.8, respectively. Rahula, Walpole, History of Buddhism in Ceylon (Colombo: Gunasena, 1966), p. 104 interprets the cleansing of the sāsana, as mentioned in the Mahāvamsa (Cūlavamsa), 1.39, vs. 57; 44, vs. 46, as ‘the purification (sodhana) of the Sāsana (religion).…’Google Scholar

^{page 269 note 2} See his Cūl. Tr. Part I, p. 78 (a translation of Cūl.1.44.46).Google Scholar

^{page 269 note 3} See Miln., pp. 133–134; DA.III.898 (on D.III.114); SA.II.201–202 (on S.11.224); AA.1.87 ff.; VbhA., pp. 431–432; ThagA.II.89 (on Thag., vs. 977).Google Scholar

^{page 269 note 4} See M.1.374, line 8.

^{page 271 note 1} D.11.124. The commentary, DA.11.566, provides no gloss on the term. For other references see under āgama in PTSD, 95a.

^{page 271 note 2} DhpA.111.272. The Sinhalese glossary on this commentary, Dahampiyā Atuvā Gätapadaya (tenth century), p. 2 clearly treats āgama as authorative text.

^{page 271 note 3} VvA., in the Vimāna-Vatthu edited by Goonaratne, E. R. (London: Part 5, 1896), p. viiGoogle Scholar. See Dhammapāla's Paramattha-Dīpanī, part IV, Being the Commentary on the Vimāna-Vatthu, ed. Hardy, E. (London: part 5, 1901), p. 3.Google Scholar

^{page 271 note 4} His title at this time was Atapattu Mudaliyār.

^{page 271 note 5} Goonaratne's, E. R. translation of the opening section of VvA in his edition of Vv. p. xi.Google Scholar

^{page 271 note 6} Journal of the Pali Text Society, 1892, edited by Davids, T. W. Rhys, p. 21.Google Scholar

^{page 271 note 7} Ibid. p. 25. It is difficult to determine the precise meaning of this compound so used approximately ninety years ago. I think the bhikkhu was working from the context of pariyattidhamma, ‘dhamma that is to be taken up, learned and held in mind,’ i.e., the authoritative text, since he was writing to the president of the Pāli Text Society and also because pariyatti and āgama can be used interchangeably. The use of the Sinhalese indefinite form, rather than the definite, can be explained by the context in which he wrote the letter, i.e., to European scholars. However, it is possible that āgamadharmaya might represent an early attempt to catch the concept ‘religion’.

^{page 271 note 8} I refer to the 1966 reprint, PTSD, p. 95a. The work was first published in fascicles 1921–1925, and Part 11, fascicle A–O was first published in 1922.Google Scholar

^{page 271 note 9} Carter, Charles, A Sinhalese-English Dictionary (Colombo: Gunasena, 1965), p. 87a. This work was first published by the Baptist Missionary Society, 1924. Rev. Carter died in 1914.Google Scholar

^{page 272 note 1} Some of the more famous debates were those held at Vāragoda (1865)Google Scholar, Baddēgama (1865)Google Scholar, Liyangēmulle (1866)Google Scholar, Udanvita (1866)Google Scholar, Gampala (1871)Google Scholar, Pānadura (1873)Google Scholar, and Urugodavattē in Colombo (1899).Google Scholar

^{page 272 note 2} See, e.g., Udanvita vādaya hā baddēgama vādaya (Vällampitiya: Dharmabandu, T. S., Navajīvana Press, 1947)Google Scholar. Gampala vādaya (Vällampitiya: Dharmabandu, T. S., Navajīvana Press, 1947)Google Scholar. Pānadurē vādaya (Maradana, Colombo: Lanka Free Press, n.d.)Google Scholar, Buddhism and Christianity: Being an Oral Debate held at Panadura…Introduction and Annotations, Peebles, J. M. (Colombo, n.d.).Google Scholar

^{page 272 note 3} See, e.g., Udanvita vādaya, pp. 11, 20Google Scholar. Gampala vādaya, pp. 19, 41Google Scholar. Panadurē vādaya, pp. 5, 7, 35, 61, 81.Google Scholar

^{page 272 note 4} See, e.g., Udanvita vādaya, p. 11Google Scholar, Panadurē vādaya, pp. 24, 81.Google Scholar

^{page 272 note 5} Udanvita vādaya, pp. 10, 12, 14, 15, 17–24, 26, 27Google Scholar. Forming the second part of this same volume, with pagination beginning again, is the account of Baddēgama vādaya. See this section, pp. 1, 2, 4, 5, 16, 18Google Scholar. Gampala vādaya, pp. 9, 11, 12, 14, 21, 22, 25–31, 35–41Google Scholar. Pānadurē vādaya, pp. 1, 2, 4–5, 7–8, 13–16, 18–19, 21–22, 24–25, 29, 34–37, 40–43, 49–51, 54–56, 58, 60, 64, 66, 68–69, 73, 79–80, 82–85, and possibly elsewhere.Google Scholar

^{page 272 note 6} Pānadurē vādaya, pp. 21, 41 (buddhāgamē asatyakama).Google Scholar

^{page 272 note 7} Ibid. pp. 14, 15, 16, 18 (kristiyāni āgamē asatyatāva).

^{page 272 note 8} Ibid. p. 19 (buddhāgamē…satyatāvat…).

^{page 272 note 9} Ibid. pp. 35, 83 (boru āgamak).

^{page 272 note 10} Ibid. p. 58 (kristiyāni āgama säbä āgamak).

^{page 272 note 11} Ibid. p. 83 (buddhāgama satyāgamak).

^{page 273 note 1} Thera, Ven Pandit W. Sorata Nayaka, Śrī Sumaňgalaśabdakosaya; Part I, second edition (Colombo: Anula Press, 1963), p. 123 b.Google Scholar

^{page 273 note 2} Ibid. p. XLII.

^{page 273 note 3} Thera, Ven. Pandit W. Sorata, Śrī Sumaňgalaśabdakosaya, Part II (Colombo: Anula Press, 1956), p. 657a.Google Scholar

^{page 273 note 4} Abēruvan, Jayasēkara, Buddhāgama; Ihala bālāmśaya (Colombo: M. D. Gunasēna, 1963)Google Scholar. Abēruvan, Jayasēkera, Buddhāgama; Tunvana śrēniya (Colombo: M. D. Gunasēna, 1968)Google Scholar. de Silvā, S. F., Eratna, E. R., Vanigatuňga, S., Buddhadharmaya; Ihala bālāmśaya (Colombo: Sri Lanka Prākasaka, 1964). Of course there are others, but these three texts might provide an adequate example.Google Scholar

^{page 273 note 5} Abrāuvan, Buddhāgama, Ihala bālāmśaya, p. 1. (Buddhāgama apē āgama yi. Apa kata-yutu karannē buddhāgama anuva yi. Apata buddhāgamata vadā usas deyak nā.)Google Scholar

^{page 273 note 6} Abēruvan, J., Buddhāgama; tunvana śrēniya (third level), p. 1. (Bauddhyaňgē usas ma vastuva budun, daham, saňgun. E tamā apagē ruvan tuna hevat tunuruvana.…)Google Scholar

^{page 273 note 7} de Silva, , Eratna, J., Vanigatuňga, Buddhadharmaya; ihala bālāmśaya, p. 1. (Api teruvan yayi kiyanni (i) apē budu hāmuduruvanta). (ii) unvahansēgē dharmayata yi. (iii) sanghayā vahansēta yi. Mē tamā buddhāgamē teruvana.Google Scholar

^{page 274 note 1} I find it disquieting that the two booklets by Abēruvan seem to introduce a child in the first grade to something called ‘Buddhism’ rather than something called karunāva, ‘compassion’ or damacr;naya, ‘gift’; that before they recite in unison the three gems, they become aware wherein they differ from other children in Sri Lanka.

^{page 274 note 2} Walpola, Sri Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (Revised Edition) (Bedford, England: Gordon Fraser, Second and enlarged edition, 1967), p. 5. This work was originally published for a Western audience, in English, in 1959. Two years later it appeared in French, and, in 1963, there was a German edition. It was not until 1965, six years after the first publication, that the work appeared in Sinhalese.Google Scholar

^{page 274 note 3} I should point out that the question Rahula often asked probably has been more frequently raised in the West than in Sri Lanka. During a three year stay in Sri Lanka, and a recent brief visit, I heard the question asked twice, on both occasions by school children. A bright young lecturer at Peradeniya was stunned when he was asked, at the close of a talk at pansala, whether buddhadharma was an āgama or a darśana. He replied that it was neither and both. Rahula's book will probably continue to give rise to the question. In spite of his comments in the passage under consideration, he uses the phrase ‘according to Buddhist philosophy’, ibid. p. 23, which his translator takes as bauddha darśanayata. Rahula, Walpola, Budun vadāla dharmaya (third edition, 1970 of the work first published in Sinhalese, 1965) (Colombo: M. D. Gunasēna, 1970), p. 34Google Scholar. See also p. 31, Bauddha darśanayē for ‘in Buddhist Philosophy’, English edition, p. 21.Google Scholar

^{page 275 note 1} Rahula, , What the Buddha Taught, p. 5Google Scholar; Rahula, , Budun vadāla dharmaya, p. 8.Google Scholar

^{page 276 note 1} The Ceylon Government Gazette, Extraordinary, No. 14, 1947/3 – Saturday, 27 February 1971, p. 102/9Google Scholar. Basic Resolution 5 (iv) reads: ‘Every citizen shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice, and freedom, either individually or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching.’ Ibid. p. 102/10. Under Proposed Amendments to the Basic Resolutions, Messrs Jayewardene, J. R. and Dudley Senanayake proposed the addition of ‘(a) the words “inviolable and be” between the words “shall be” and “given” in line 2; (b) the words “its rites, Ministers and places of worship” immediately after the words “foster Buddhism” and before the words “while assuring”.’Google ScholarIbid. p. 102/11, Mr Chelvanayakam, S. J. V. proposed an alternative resolution, that the ‘Republic of Sri Lanka shall be a secular State but shall protect and foster Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity and Islam’Google Scholar. Ibid. The Sinhalese word used to translate Chelvanayakam's ‘secular’ is lōkāyata, which is probably more recent, in this usage, than Sinhalese terms for ‘religion’ and ‘Buddhism’. See Andu krama sampādaka mandalayē tyāya patraya, 30 March 1971, p. 22. The word lōkāyata traditionally meant ‘having to do with the mundane, the world’ and has designated the Cārvāka school of materialistic thought.Google Scholar

^{page 277 note 1} See Adukrama sampādaka mandalayē meheyum hā visaya kāraka sabhāva visin salakā bālīma saňdahā 1971.1.17 vana dina āndukrama vyavasthā katayutu āmati idiripat kala mūlika yōjanā ketumpata (17 January 1971), P. 1.Google Scholar

^{page 277 note 2} A portion of the Sinhalese translation of MrChelvanayakam's, substitute proposal, noted above, n. 1, p. 276, reads bauddhāgama hindu āgama, kristiyāni āgama saha islām āgama’.Google Scholar

^{page 278 note 1} I refer to the third edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 3, 762 b.Google Scholar

^{page 279 note 1} See the parallel note by Smith, Wildred C. (1962), op. cit., under note 36 on Chapter Three, p. 253.Google Scholar

^{page 279 note 2} Schmidt, Isaac Jacob, Ueber die Verwandtschaft der gnostischtheosophischen Lehren mit den Religionssystemen des Orients, vorzüglich dem Buddhaismus (Leipzig, 1828). See Smith, loc. cit.Google Scholar

^{page 279 note 3} Hodgson, Brian Houghton, Sketch of Buddhism, derived from the Bauddha Scriptures of Nepal (London: J. L. Cox, 1828).Google Scholar

^{page 279 note 4} Upham, Edward, The History and Doctrine of Buddhism, popularly illustrated; with notices of the Kappooism, or Demon worship, and of the Bali, or planetary incantations of Ceylon (London: R. Ackermann, 1829).Google Scholar

^{page 279 note 5} Burnouf, E., Introduction à I'histoire du buddhisme indien (Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1844)Google Scholar. Note that in 1831 Bochinger, Jean Jacques wrote a book entitled La vie contemplative, ascétique et monastique chez les Indous et chez les peuples bouddhistes (Strasbourg, 1831), and the way he chose a title to reflect a way of life among people.Google Scholar

^{page 279 note 6} Neven, Felix, De l' état présent des études sur le Bouddhisme et de leur application (Gand, 1846).Google Scholar

^{page 279 note 7} Hardy, Robert Spence, A Manual of Buddhism in its Modern Development; translated from Sinhalese MSS. (London, 1853).Google Scholar

^{page 279 note 8} Néve, Felix, Le Bouddhisme, son fondateur et ses écritures (Paris, 1853).Google Scholar

^{page 279 note 9} See Vassilief, V. (Vasily Pavolovich Vasil'ev), Der Buddhismus, seine Dogmen, Geschichte und Literature…aus dem Russischen übersetzt (St Petersburg, 1860)Google Scholar. This work was also translated into French as Le Bouddhisme, ses dogmes, san histoire et sa littérature, traduit du russe par M.G.A. La Comme (Paris, 1865).Google Scholar

^{page 279 note 10} Davids, T. W. Rhys, Buddhism: Being a Sketch of the Life and Teachings of Gautama the Buddha (London, 1877).Google Scholar

^{page 279 note 11} Copleston, Reginald Stephen, Buddhism, primitive and present in Magadha and in Ceylon (London, 1892).CrossRef Google Scholar

^{page 280 note 1} Dahlmann, Joseph, Nirvāna. Eine Studie zur Vorgeschichte des Buddhismus (Berlin, 1896).Google Scholar

^{page 280 note 2} Davids, T. W. Rhys, Buddhism. Its History and Literature (London: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1896).Google Scholar

^{page 280 note 3} Warren, H. C., Buddhism in Translations (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Oriental Series, vol. 3, 1896).Google Scholar

^{page 280 note 4} Sawyer, J. L., Buddhisme populaire (Paris, 1897).Google Scholar

^{page 280 note 5} Pavolini, Paulo Emilio, Buddhismo (Milano, 1898).Google Scholar

^{page 280 note 6} Lillie, A., ‘Buddha and Buddhism’ in Oliphant, William Henry, editor, The World's Epoch Makers (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1900).Google Scholar

^{page 280 note 7} Datta, Manmathanatha, Buddha: his life, his teaching, his order, together with the history of the Buddhism (Calcutta: Society for the Resuscitation of Indian Literature, 1901).Google Scholar

^{page 280 note 8} Lakshmī-Narasu, P., The Essence of Buddhism (Madras: Srinivasa Varadachari and Co., 1907).Google Scholar

^{page 280 note 9} Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro, Outlines of Mahāyanā Buddhism (London: Luzac and Co., 1907).Google Scholar

^{page 280 note 10} Warren, , op. cit.Google Scholar

^{page 280 note 11} Lakshmī-Narasu, , op. cit. See also Edward [Eberhard Julius Dietrich] Conze, Buddhism: Its Essence and Development (Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1951).Google Scholar

^{page 280 note 12} Ñāņatiloka, Bhikkhu, The Quintessence of Buddhism…A Lecture etc. (Colombo: Sinhala Samaya Press, 1913).Google Scholar

^{page 280 note 13} Saunders, Kenneth James, The Heart of Buddhism: an anthology of Buddhist verse (London: Oxford University Press, 1915).Google Scholar

^{page 280 note 14} Gauda, Hari-Simha, The Spirit of Buddhism: being an examination of the life of the founder of Buddhism, his religion and philosophy (London: Luzac, 1929).Google Scholar

^{page 280 note 15} Shcherbatsky, Theodor Ippolitovich, The Central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of the Word ‘Dharma’ (London: RAS of Great Britain and Ireland, 1923).Google Scholar

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^{page 280 note 17} For some, the term ‘Pali Buddhism’ has been used to demarcate the scope of their work. See Tilbe, H. H., Pali Buddhism (Rangoon: American Baptist Mission Press, 1900)Google Scholar; Seidenstuecker, Carl, Pāli-Buddhismus in Übersetzungen (Breslau, 1911)Google Scholar; and note Tachibana, S., The Ethics of Pali Buddhism [Oxford Ph.D. thesis, 1922]Google Scholar; Sarathchandra, E. R. de S., The Psychology of Perception in Pali Buddhism, with special reference to the theory of Bhavanga [London, Ph.D. thesis, 1948].Google Scholar

^{page 281 note 1} Bird, J., Historical Researches on the Origin and Principles of the Bauddha and Jaina Religions (Bombay: American Mission Press, 1847). See also de Alwis, op. cit.Google Scholar

^{page 281 note 2} de Milloué, Leon, Le Bouddhisme dans le monde. Origine-dogmas-histoire.…(Paris, 1893)Google Scholar; Olden-berg, H., Die Lehre der Upanishaden und die Anfänge des Buddhismus (Göttingen, 1915)Google Scholar; Davids, C. A. F. Rhys, Sakya; or Buddhists Origins (London: Kegan Paul, 1931)Google Scholar; and the same author's What was the Original Gospel in Buddhism? (London: Epworth Press, 1938)Google Scholar; Pande, Govind Chandra, Studies in the Origins of Buddhism (Allahabad: University of Allahabad, 1957).Google Scholar

^{page 281 note 3} See Davids, T. W. Rhys, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by Some Points in the History of Indian Buddhism (London: Williams and Norgate, 1881)Google Scholar; and note, Dadson, A. J., Evolution and Its Bearing on Religions (London, 1901)Google Scholar; Buchan, J., The First Things: Studies in the Embryology of Religion (Edinburgh, 1902)Google Scholar; Doyle, K. D., The Real Origin of Religion (London, 1902)Google Scholar; Bierer, F., The Evolution of Religions (New York: Putnam's, 1906)Google Scholar; Crawley, A. E., Origin and Function of Religion (London, 1907)Google Scholar; Kreglinger, R., Études sur l'origine et la developpement de la vie religieuse (Bruxelles, 1919)Google Scholar. Now note the way in which the following works reflect a common orientation. Kimura, R., The Original and Developed Doctrines of Indian Buddhism, in Charts (Calcutta, 1920)Google Scholar; Hopkins, E. W., Origin and Evolution of Religion (New Haven, 1923)Google Scholar; Moore, G. F., The Birth and Growth of Religion (Edinburgh, 1923)Google Scholar; Churchward, A., Origin and Evolution of Religion (London: Allen and Unwin, 1924)Google Scholar; Przyluski, Jean, ‘Origin and Development of Buddhism’, The Journal of Theological Studies [October, 1934].CrossRef Google Scholar

^{page 282 note 1} I refer to the Ninth Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1876), IV, 432aGoogle Scholar. This was nearly fifty years after the works of Schmidt, I. J., op. cit. [‘Buddhaismus’] and B. H. Houghton, op. cit. [‘Buddhism’] were published, i.e., in 1828Google Scholar. And note that ‘Buddhism’ occurred in the Seventh Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1842), v, 637a, and again in the Eighth Edition (1854), v, 724a.Google Scholar

^{page 282 note 2} Lillie, Arthur, Buddha and Early Buddhism (London: Trubner and Co., 1881).Google Scholar

^{page 282 note 3} Read, Elizabeth A., Primitive Buddhism: Its Origin and Teachings (Chicago: Scott and Foresman, 1896)Google Scholar. See also Copleston, Reginald Stephen, Buddhism, Primitive and Present in Magadha and in Ceylon (London: Longman, Green, 1892).Google Scholar

^{page 282 note 4} Lorenzo, G. de, India e Buddhismo antico (Bari, 1904)Google Scholar. See also Poussin, L. de La Vallée, The Way to Nirvāna: Six Lectures on Ancient Buddhism as a Discipline of Salvation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1917).Google Scholar

^{page 282 note 5} David, T. W. Rhys, Early Buddhism (London: Archibald Constable and Co., 1908).Google Scholar

^{page 282 note 6} Datta, Sukumara [Sukumar Dutt], ‘The Vinayapitakam and Early Buddhist Monasticism in its Growth and Development’, Journal of the Department of Letters, Calcutta University, No. x, 1923Google Scholar; Early Buddhist Monachism, 600 B.C.–100 B.C. (London: Kegan Paul, 1924).Google Scholar

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