Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-lj6df Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T06:29:50.525Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Counting the Dead: Traditions of Enumeration and the Italian Wars*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 November 2018

John Gagné
John Gagné*
Affiliation:
University of Sydney
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Methods for counting war deaths developed alongside structural changes in the ways that states enumerated mortality (for both fighters and citizens) between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries. This paper argues that an alternative way to interpret observers’ comments on the magnitude and novelty of war damages during the Italian Wars (1494–1559) is to trace the history of enumerating mortality from the fourteenth century, using the Hundred Years’ War and the Black Death as departure points. Military heralds counted dead soldiers in Northern Europe and civic record keepers registered public mortality in Italy. Numbers carried cultural value. In war, disputants and observers used numbers rhetorically to argue political cases and to emphasize the scale of victories and defeats. By 1500, the proliferation of specific mortality numbers in public discourse — amplified by printed war reporting — forced observers to reckon with their meaning. The article concludes by illustrating how numbers entered memorial culture: monuments from the Italian Wars featured numbers as an index of the perceived magnitude of war in the sixteenth century.

Type
Research Article
Information
Renaissance Quarterly , Volume 67 , Issue 3 , Fall 2014 , pp. 791 - 840
Copyright
Copyright © Renaissance Society of America 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

I owe thanks to audiences who responded to early versions of this research at the Renaissance Society of America Annual Meeting in Chicago, 2008, as well as in seminars at Harvard University, at the University of New Hampshire, and in Peter Wilson’s research cluster at the University of Sydney with my colleagues in Classics and Ancient History, Bob Cowan, Paul Roche, and Anne Rogerson. Alex Bamji, Ann Blair, Ken Gouwens, and Katharine Park all offered helpful advice on drafts, and Frances Muecke advised my translation of the Ravenna inscription. I also appreciate the recommendations of the two anonymous RQ readers, whose suggestions improved this article immeasurably. All translations are mine unless otherwise indicated. I dedicate this work to the memory of Jo-Ann Dooley.

References

Bibliography

Archival and Manuscript Sources

Archivio di Stato di Firenze (ASF). Dieci di Balia — Legazioni e Commissarie. Signori Dieci di Balia, Otto di Pratica — Legazioni e Commissarie — Missive e Responsive.Google Scholar
Archivio di Stato di Milano. Frammenti Registri Ducali.Google Scholar
Biblioteca Ambrosiana, Milano (BAM). MS P 61 sup. Ambrogio da Paullo, Istoria della guerra d’Italia dalla venuta del Rè Carlo di Francia nell’anno 1496 fine all’anno 1512 Google Scholar
Bibliothèque de Genève. MS Lat. 97. Raoul Bollart, De victoria et triumpho francorum Regis Ludouici huiusce nominis duodecimi Augusti patrisque regni contra Venetos.Google Scholar
Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris (BNF).Google Scholar
MS Fr. 6465. Grandes Chroniques de France, 1455–60.Google Scholar
MS Fr. 15534. Miscellany of French military manuscripts, sixteenth century.Google Scholar
MS Fr. 21508. Montres des gensdarmes, 1510–15.Google Scholar
MS Fr. Nouv. Acq. 5126. Documents antérieurs à la mort de François Ier.Google Scholar
Biblioteca Trivulziana, Milano. Inc. C 259. Miscellany of 50 pamphlets with manuscript annotations.Google Scholar
Koninklijke Bibliotheek van Nederland, The Hague.Google Scholar
MS 72 A 25. Jean Froissart, Chroniques, illuminated 1400–10.Google Scholar

Printed Sources

Adam Even, Paul. “Les fonctions militaires des hérauts d’armes: Leur influence sur le développement de l’héraldique.” Archives héraldiques suisses 71 (1957): 2–33.Google Scholar
Aho, James A. “Rhetoric and the Invention of Double Entry Bookkeeping.” Rhetorica 3.1 (1985): 21–43.10.1525/rh.1985.3.1.21CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ainsworth, Peter F. Jean Froissart and the Fabric of History: Truth, Myth, and Fiction in the Chroniques. Oxford, 1990.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, Peter F. “Heralds, Heraldry and the Colour Blue in the Chronicles of Jean Froissart.” In The Medieval Chronicle, ed. Erik Kooper, 40–55. Amsterdam, 1999.Google Scholar
da Paullo, Ambrogio. “Cronaca Milanese dall’anno 1476 al 1515.” Ed. Antonio Ceruti. Miscellanea di Storia Italiana 13 (1871): 91–378.Google Scholar
Autrand, Françoise. “The Battle of Crécy: A Hard Blow for the Monarchy of France.” In The Battle of Crécy (2005), 273–86.Google Scholar
Ayton, Andrew. “English Armies in the Fourteenth Century.” In Arms, Armies and Fortifications in the Hundred Years War, ed. Anne Curry and Michael Hughes, 21–38. Woodbridge, 1994.Google Scholar
Ayton, Andrew. “Crécy and the Chroniclers.” In The Battle of Crécy (2005), 287–350.Google Scholar
Bachrach, Bernard S. “The Combat Sculptures at Fulk Nerra’s ‘Battle Abbey’ (c. 1005–1012).” The Haskins Society Journal 3 (1991): 63–80.Google Scholar
Barrillon, Jean. Journal de Jean Barrillon secrétaire du Chancelier Duprat, 1515–1521. Ed. de Vaissière, Pierre. 2 vols. Paris, 1897.Google Scholar
Barthes, Roland. “L’effet de réel.” In Littérature et réalité, ed. Gérard Genette and Tzvetan Todorov, 81–90. Paris, 1982.Google Scholar
Bartolucci, Maria Teresa. La Battaglia di Ravenna (11 aprile 1512) con particolari desunti dagli scrittori del tempo. Unpublished tesi di laurea, Università degli Studi di Firenze, 1962.Google Scholar
Bascapè, Giacomo C., and Marcello del Piazzo. Insegne e simboli. Araldica pubblica e privata medievale e moderna. Rome, 1983.Google Scholar
The Battle of Crécy, 1346. Ed. Andrew Ayton and Philip Preston. Woodbridge, 2005.Google Scholar
Bell, Adrian R. War and the Soldier in the Fourteenth Century. Woodbridge, 2004.Google Scholar
Beltrami, Francesco. Il forestiero istruito delle cose notabili della città di Ravenna e suburbane della medesima. Ravenna, 1783.Google Scholar
Benedictow, Ole J. The Black Death, 1346–1353: The Complete History. Woodbridge, 2004.Google Scholar
Bessey, Valérie. Construire l’armée française. Textes fondateurs des institutions militaires, tome 1: De la France des premiers Valois à la fin du règne de François Ier. Turnhout, 2006.Google Scholar
Biller, Peter. The Measure of the Multitude: Population in Medieval Thought. Oxford, 2000.Google Scholar
Blair, Ann. “Introduction.” Archival Science 10.3 (2010): 195–200.10.1007/s10502-010-9131-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, Ann, and Peter Stallybrass. “Mediating Information, 1450–1800.” In This Is Enlightenment, ed. Clifford Siskin and William Warner, 139–63. Chicago, 2011.Google Scholar
Borromeo, Agostino. “Pier Donato Cesi.” Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani 24 (1980): 261–66.Google Scholar
de Paris, Bourgeois. Le Journal d’un Bourgeois de Paris sous le règne de François Ier (1515–36). Ed. V.-L. Bourilly. Paris, 1910.Google Scholar
Bourne, Molly. “Mantegna’s Madonna della Vittoria and the Rewriting of Gonzaga History.” In The Patron’s Payoff: Conspicuous Commissions in Italian Renaissance Art, ed. Jonathan K. Nelson, Richard J. Zeckhauser, and Michael Spence, 166–84. Princeton, 2008.Google Scholar
Branciforte, Suzanne. Ars poetica rei publicae: The Herald of the Florentine Signoria. PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1990.Google Scholar
Bruzelius, Caroline. The Stones of Naples: Church Building in Angevin Italy, 1266–1343. New Haven, 2004.Google Scholar
Cabourdin, Guy, and Jacques Dupâquier. “Les sources et les institutions.” In Histoire de la population française, vol. 2, De la Renaissance à 1789, ed. Jacques Dupâquier, Guy Cabourdin, et al., 9–50. Paris, 1988.Google Scholar
Caferro, William P. Mercenary Companies and the Decline of Siena. Baltimore, 1998.Google Scholar
Caferro, William P. John Hawkwood: An English Mercenary in Fourteenth-Century Italy. Baltimore, 2006.Google Scholar
Caferro, William P. “Long-Term Service, and Permanent Forces: A Reassessment of the Florentine Army in the Fourteenth Century.” Journal of Modern History 80.2 (2008a): 219–51.10.1086/588856CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caferro, William P. “Warfare and Economy in Renaissance Italy, 1350–1450.” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 39.3 (2008b): 167–209.10.1162/jinh.2008.39.2.167CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carmichael, Ann G. Plague and the Poor in Renaissance Florence. Cambridge, 1986.Google Scholar
Carpentier, Élisabeth. Une ville devant la peste. Orvieto et la Peste Noire de 1348. Paris, 1962.Google Scholar
Champier, Symphorien. Le fondement et origines des tiltres de noblesse. … Paris, 1535.Google Scholar
Chiffoleau, Jacques. La comptabilité de l’au-delà. Les hommes, la mort et la religion dans la région d’Avignon à la fin du Moyen Age (vers 1320–vers 1480). Rome, 1980.Google Scholar
Cipolla, Carlo. “I libri dei morti.” In Le fonti della demografia storica in Italia, 1:851–66. Rome, 1972.Google Scholar
Clanchy, M. T. From Memory to Written Record: England, 1066–1307. Oxford, 1993.Google Scholar
Contamine, Philippe. Guerre, état et société à la fin du Moyen Âge. Paris, 1972.10.1515/9783111330648CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Copia delle stupende &; horribile cose che ne boschi di Bergamo sono di questi giorni apparsi. Siena, 1517. British Library, C.127.c.21.Google Scholar
Coyecque, E. L’Hôtel-Dieu de Paris au Moyen Age. 2 vols. Paris, 1891.Google Scholar
Crépin, André. “Les dépouillés des tués sur le champ de bataille dans l’histoire, les arts et la pensée du haut Moyen Âge.” In La guerre, la violence et les gens au Moyen Âge, ed. Philippe Contamine and Olivier Guyotjeannin, 1:15–24. Paris, 1996.Google Scholar
Croce, Benedetto. “Un poemetto del Quattrocento sulle morti dei condottieri.” La Critica (1938): 297–302.Google Scholar
Crosby, Alfred W. The Measure of Reality: Quantification and Western Society, 1250–1600. Cambridge, 1997.Google Scholar
Cuozzo, Errico. “I Cistercensi nella Campanio medioevale.” In I Cistercensi nel Mezzogiorno medioevale, ed. Hubert Houben and Benedetto Vetere, 243–84. Galatina, 1994.Google Scholar
Curran, Brian. The Egyptian Renaissance: The Afterlife of Ancient Egypt in Early Modern Italy. Chicago, 2007.Google Scholar
Curran, Brian, Anthony Grafton, Pamela O. Long, and Benjamin Weiss. Obelisk: A History. Cambridge, MA, 2009.Google Scholar
Curry, Anne. The Battle of Agincourt: Sources and Interpretations. Woodbridge, 2000.Google Scholar
Curry, Anne. Agincourt: A New History. Stroud, 2005.Google Scholar
Dati, Gregorio. L’Istoria di Firenze. Ed. Luigi Pratesi. Norcia, 1902.Google Scholar
d’Auton, Jean. Chroniques de Louis XII. Ed. René de Maulde La Clavière. 4 vols. Paris, 1889–95.Google Scholar
Davies, T. R. “The Herald in Medieval Warfare.” The Coat of Arms 9 (1968): 245–60.Google Scholar
De la Brière, Léon. “Dépêches de Ferry Carondelet, procureur en cour de Rome (1510–1513).” Bulletin historique et philologique du Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques 1/2 (1895): 98–134.Google Scholar
Denifle, Henri. La désolation des églises, monastères & hôpitaux en France pendant la Guerre de Cent Ans. 2 vols. Paris, 1897.Google Scholar
Denis, Anne. Charles VIII et les Italiens: Histoire et Mythe. Geneva, 1979.Google Scholar
de Roover, Raymond. “The Development of Accounting Prior to Luca Pacioli According to the Account Books of Medieval Merchants.” In Business, Banking, and Economic Thought in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe: Selected Studies of Raymond de Roover, ed. Julius Kirshner, 119–80. Chicago, 1974.Google Scholar
de Vivo, Filippo. Information and Communication in Venice: Rethinking Early Modern Politics. Oxford, 2007.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199227068.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Vivo, Filippo. “Ordering the Archive in Early Modern Venice (1400–1650).” Archival Science 10 (2010): 231–48.10.1007/s10502-010-9122-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubois, Henri. “L’essor médiéval: Le premier monde plein.” In Histoire de la population française, vol. 1, Des origines à la Renaissance, ed. Jacques Dupâquier, Jean-Noël Biraben, et al., 207–66. Paris, 1988.Google Scholar
Esch, Arnold. “I mercenari svizzeri in Italia: L’esperienza delle guerre milanesi (1510–1515) tratta da fonti bernesi.” Verbanus 20 (1999): 217–305.Google Scholar
Firnhaber-Baker, Justine. “Seigneurial War and Royal Power in Later Medieval Southern France.” Past & Present 208 (2010): 37–76.Google Scholar
Fournel, Jean-Louis. “Guichardin et la ‘barbarie’ française.” In L’Image de l’autre européen, XVe–XVIIe siècles, ed. Jean Dufournet, Adelin Charles Fiorato, and Augustin Redondo, 109–20. Paris, 1992.Google Scholar
Fournel, Jean-Louis, and Zancarini, Jean-Claude. La grammaire de la république. Langages de la politique chez Francesco Guicciardini (1483–1540). Geneva, 2009.Google Scholar
Fowler, Kenneth A. “News from the Front: Letters and Despatches of the Fourteenth Century.” In Guerre et société en France, en Angleterre et en Bourgogne XIVe–XVe siècle, ed. Philippe Contamine, Charles Giry-Deloison, and Maurice H. Keen, 63–92. Lille, 1991.Google Scholar
de Lorraine, François, duc d’Aumale et de Guise. Mémoires. Ed. Michaud and Poujoulat. Paris, 1839.Google Scholar
Frank, Thomas. “Die Sorge um das Seelenheil in italienischen, deutchen und französischen Hospitälern.” In Hospitäler in Mittelalter und Früher Neuzeit, ed. Gisela Drossbach, 216–24. Munich, 2007.Google Scholar
Frati, Vasco ed. Il sacco di Brescia: Testimonianze, cronache, diari, atti del processo e memorie storiche. … 2 vols. Brescia, 1989.Google Scholar
Froissart, Jean. Chroniques: Le manuscrit d’Amiens. Ed. George T. Diller. 4 vols. Geneva, 1991.Google Scholar
Frugoni, Arsenio. “G. Villani, ‘Cronica,’ XI, 94.” Bullettino dell’Istituto storico italiano per il Medio Evo e archivio muratoriano 77 (1965): 229–55.Google Scholar
Fulcher of Chartres. A History of the Expedition to Jerusalem. Trans. Frances Rita Rayn. Ed. Harold Fink. Knoxville, 1969.Google Scholar
Gagliardi, Ernst. Der Anteil der Schweiz an den italienischen Kriegen 1494–1516. 2 vols. Zürich, 1919.Google Scholar
Gaier, Claude. “L’opinion des chefs de guerre français du XVIe siècle sur les progrès de l’art militaire.” Revue Internationale d’Histoire Militaire 29 (1970): 723–46.Google Scholar
Giesey, Ralph. The Royal Funeral Ceremony in Renaissance France. Geneva, 1960.Google Scholar
Giordano, Luisa. “La celebrazione della vittoria: L’esaltazione della storia contemporanea nelle terre della conquista.” In Louis XII en Milanais: XLIe colloque international d’études humanistes, ed. Philippe Contamine and Jean Guillaume, 245–72. Paris, 2003.Google Scholar
Giovio, Paolo. Historiarum sui temporis. Venice, 1555.Google Scholar
Goodall, J. A. “Heraldry in Italy during the Middle Ages and Renaissance.” The Coat of Arms 5 (1958): 148–55; 209–12.Google Scholar
Gras, Pierre. “Le registre parroissial de Givry (1334–1357) et la peste noire en Bourgogne.” La Bibliothèque de l’École des Chartes 100 (1939): 295–308.10.3406/bec.1939.449196CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Groebner, Valentin. Defaced: The Visual Culture of Violence in the Late Middle Ages. Trans. Pamela Selwyn. New York, 2004.Google Scholar
Groebner, Valentin. Who Are You? Identification, Deception, and Surveillance in Early Modern Europe. Trans. Mark Kyburz and John Peck. New York, 2007.Google Scholar
Guerre in Ottava Rima. Vol. 2, Guerre d’Italia (1483–1527). Facsimile edition. Ed. Marina Beer, Donatella Diamanti, and Cristina Ivaldi. Modena, 1989. Cited as GOR.Google Scholar
Guicciardini, Francesco. Storia d’Italia. Ed. Silvana Seidel Menchi. 3 vols. Turin, 1971.Google Scholar
Guiffrey, Georges ed. Cronique du roy Françoys premier de ce nom. Paris, 1860.Google Scholar
Hale, John Rigby. “War and Public Opinion in Renaissance Italy.” In Italian Renaissance Studies (1960), 94–122.Google Scholar
Hale, John Rigby. War and Society in Renaissance Europe, 1450–1620. Baltimore, 1985.Google Scholar
Hall, Bert S. Weapons and Warfare in Renaissance Europe. Baltimore, 1997.Google Scholar
Hallam, Elizabeth M. “Monasteries as ‘War Memorials’: Battle Abbey and La Victoire.” Studies in Church History 20 (1983): 47–57.10.1017/S042420840000718XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hay, Denys. “Italy and Barbarian Europe.” In Italian Renaissance Studies (1960), 48–68.Google Scholar
Henneman, John Bell. Royal Taxation in Fourteenth-Century France: The Development of War Financing, 1322–1356. Princeton, 1971.Google Scholar
Horodowich, Elizabeth. “The Gossiping Tongue: Oral Networks, Public Life and Political Culture in Early Modern Venice.” Renaissance Studies 19.1 (2005): 22–45.10.1111/j.1477-4658.2005.00084.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horrox, Rosemary. The Black Death. Manchester, 1994.10.7765/9781526112712CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hunnisett, H. F. “The Medieval Coroners’ Rolls.” The American Journal of Legal History 3.2 (1959): 95–124.10.2307/844281CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ilardi, Vincent. “‘Italianità’ among Some Italian Intellectuals in the Early Sixteenth Century.” Traditio 22 (1956): 339–67.10.1017/S0362152900007728CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inganni, Raffaele. Origine e vicendi della cappella espiatoria francese a Zivido presso Melegnano (1515–1606). Milan, 1899.Google Scholar
Irwin, Robert. The Middle East in the Middle Ages: The Early Mamluk Sultanate, 1250–1382. Carbondale, 1986.Google Scholar
Italian Renaissance Studies: A Tribute to the Late Cecilia M. Ady. Ed. E. F. Jacob. London, 1960.Google Scholar
Kaeuper, Richard W. Holy Warriors: The Religious Ideology of Chivalry. Philadelphia, 2009.Google Scholar
Kantorowicz, Ernst. “Pro Patria Mori in Medieval Political Thought.” American Historical Review 56.3 (1951): 472–92.10.2307/1848433CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Knapton, Michael. “Venice and the Terraferma.” In The Italian Renaissance State, ed. Andrea Gamberini and Isabella Lazzarini, 132–55. Cambridge, 2012.10.1017/CBO9780511845697.010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koch, Bruno. “Kronenfresser und deutsche Franzosen: Zur sozialgeschichte der Reisläuferei aus Bern, Solothurn und Biel zur Zeit der Mailänderkriege.” Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Geschichte 46 (1996): 151–84.Google Scholar
Köchlin, Michael. Michaelis Coccinij Tubingensis De Bellis Italicis liber unus. Basel, 1544.Google Scholar
Labalme, Patricia H., and Laura Sanguineti White, eds. Venice — Cità Excelentissima: Selections from the Renaissance Diaries of Marin Sanudo. Baltimore, 2008.Google Scholar
Lot, Ferdinand. Recherches sur les effectifs des armées françaises des guerres d’Italie aux guerres de religion, 1494-1562. Paris, 1962.Google Scholar
Luce, Siméon. “L’administration intérieure de l’Hôtel-Dieu de Paris en 1368 et 1369.” Bulletin de la société de l’histoire de Paris et de l’Île-de-France 7 (1880): 137–44.Google Scholar
Lyall, R. J. “Materials: The Paper Revolution.” In Book Production and Publishing in Britain, 1375–1475, ed. Jeremy Griffiths and Derek Pearsall, 11–29. Cambridge, 1989.Google Scholar
Machiavelli, Niccolò. Art of War. Ed and trans. Christopher Lynch. Chicago, 2003a.10.7208/chicago/9780226500324.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Machiavelli, Niccolò. The Prince. Trans. George Bull. New York, 2003b.10.1522/cla.man.priCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mailles, Jacques de (le Loyal Serviteur). Très joyeuse, plaisante, et récréative histoire du gentil seigneur du Bayart. Ed. M. J. Roman. Paris, 1878.Google Scholar
Mallett, Michael. Mercenaries and Their Masters: Warfare in Renaissance Italy. London, 1974.Google Scholar
Mallett, Michael. “The Transformation of War, 1494–1530.” In Italy and the European Powers: The Impact of War, 1500–1530, ed. Christine Shaw, 3–21. Leiden, 2006.Google Scholar
Mansuelli, Guido A. “Il monumento commemorativo romano.” Bollettino del Centro di studi per la storia dell’architettura 12 (1958): 3–23.Google Scholar
Mérindol, Christian de. “Roi d’armes et poursuivants à la cour d’Anjou au temps du roi René.” Revue du Nord 88.366/67 (2006): 617–30.10.3917/rdn.366.0617CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meserve, Margaret. “News from Negroponte: Politics, Popular Opinion, and Information Exchange in the First Decade of the Italian Press.” Renaissance Quarterly 59.2 (2006): 440–80.10.1353/ren.2008.0312CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meyer, P. “Les dix-sept cent mille clochers de la France.” Romania 7 (1878): 104–06.Google Scholar
Molho, Anthony. Florentine Public Finances in the Early Renaissance, 1400–1433. Cambridge, MA, 1971.Google Scholar
Murray, Alexander. Reason and Society in the Middle Ages. Oxford, 1978.Google Scholar
Newhall, Richard Ager. Muster and Review: A Problem of English Military Administration, 1420–1440. Cambridge, MA, 1940.Google Scholar
Niccoli, Ottavia. Prophecy and People in Renaissance Italy. Princeton, 1990.Google Scholar
Niccoli, Ottavia. “I morti, la morte, le guerre d’Italia.” In Città in Guerra. Esperienze e riflessioni nel primo ‘500 — Bologna nelle “Guerre d’Italia,” ed. Gian Maria Anselmi and Angela De Benedictis, 119–33. Bologna, 2008.Google Scholar
Oerter, Herbert L. “Campaldino, 1289.” Speculum 43.3 (1968): 429–50.10.2307/2855837CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pade, Marianne. The Reception of Plutarch’s Lives in Fifteenth-Century Italy. 2 vols. Copenhagen, 2007.Google Scholar
Paré, Ambroise. Les Oevvres d’Ambroise Paré, Conseiller, et premier chirvrgien dv Roy. Paris, 1585.Google Scholar
Pastoureau, Michel. “Stratégies héraldiques et changements d’armoiries chez les magnats florentins du XIVe siècle.” Annales: ESC 43.5 (1988): 1241–56.10.3406/ahess.1988.283551CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pastoureau, Michel. Traité d’héraldique. Paris, 1993.Google Scholar
Perego, Giancarlo. La battaglia di Agnadello e i morti della Vittoria. Agnadello, 2002.Google Scholar
Pieri, Piero. Il rinascimento e la crisi militare italiana. Turin, 1952.Google Scholar
Plutarch, . Lives. Trans. Bernadotte Perrin. 11 vols. Cambridge, MA, 1954.Google Scholar
Poovey, Mary. A History of the Modern Fact: Problems of Knowledge in the Sciences of Wealth and Society. Chicago, 1998.10.7208/chicago/9780226675183.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potter, David. Renaissance France at War: Armies, Culture and Society, c. 1480–1560. Woodbridge, 2008.Google Scholar
Prince, A. E. “The Indenture System under Edward III.” In Historical Essays in Honour of James Tait, ed. J. G. Edwards, V. H. Galbraith, and E. F. Jacob, 283–97. Manchester, 1933.Google Scholar
Quadri, Giuseppe. La Madonna della Vittoria a ricordo del quarto centenario della Battaglia di Agnadello. Crema, 1909.Google Scholar
Questa sie listoria de tutti li homini famosi chi sono morti da cinquanta anni in qua nelle parte de italia & dele proue che fecino al mondo la morte glia uoluti per se tutti quanti. [Venice?], n.d., ca. 1484. Biblioteca Trivulziana, Milano, Triv. H 311/12.Google Scholar
Quintilian, . Institutio Oratoria. Trans. H. E. Butler. 4 vols. Cambridge, MA, 1943.Google Scholar
Ramos Aguirre, Mikel. “Hérauts et rois d’armes de Navarre. Insignes de l’office et signes d’identité.” Revue du Nord 88.366/67 (2006): 729–53.Google Scholar
Ramsay, J. H. “Chroniclers’ Estimates of Numbers and Official Records.” English Historical Review 18.72 (1903): 625–29.10.1093/ehr/XVIII.LXXII.625CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramsay, J. H. “The Strength of English Armies in the Middle Ages.” English Historical Review 29.114 (1914): 221–27.10.1093/ehr/XXIX.CXIV.221CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, Les, Riyadh Lafta, Richard Garfield, Jamal Khudhairi, and Gilbert Burnham. “Mortality before and after the 2003 Invasion of Iraq: Cluster Sample Survey.” Lancet 364 (2004): 1857–64.10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17441-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, Clifford. “The Battle of Agincourt.” In The Hundred Years War (Part II): Different Vistas, ed. L. J. Andrew Villalon and Donald J. Kagay, 37–121. Leiden, 2008.Google Scholar
Rospocher, Massimo, and Salzberg, Rosa. “‘El vulgo zanza’: Spazi, pubblici, voci a Venezia durante le guerre d’Italia.” Storica 48 (2010): 83–120.Google Scholar
Rossi, Girolamo. Storie Ravennati. Ed. and trans. Mario Pierpaoli. Ravenna, 1996.Google Scholar
Ingrid D., Rowland “Abacus and Humanism.” Renaissance Quarterly 48.4 (1995): 695–727.Google Scholar
Salzberg, Rosa. “In the Mouths of Charlatans: Street Performers and the Dissemination of Pamphlets in Renaissance Italy.” Renaissance Studies 24.5 (2010): 638–53.10.1111/j.1477-4658.2010.00670.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanudo, Marin. Diarii. 58 vols. Bologna, 1969–79.Google Scholar
Saul, Nigel. English Church Monuments in the Middle Ages: History and Representation. Oxford, 2009.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199215980.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schroeder, Horst. Der Topos der Nine Worthies in Literatur und bildender Kunst. Göttingen, 1971.Google Scholar
Solon, Paul. “Popular Response to Standing Military Forces in Fifteenth-Century France.” Studies in the Renaissance 19 (1972): 78–111.Google Scholar
Seyssel, Claude de. The Monarchy of France. Ed. Donald Kelley. Trans. J. H. Hexter. New Haven, 1981.Google Scholar
Spont, Alfred. “Marignan et l’organisation militaire sous François Ier.” Revue des questions historiques 22 (1899): 59–77.Google Scholar
Stanesco, Michel. Jeux d’errance du chevalier mediéval. Leiden, 1988.Google Scholar
Stefani, Coppo di Marchionne. Cronaca fiorentina. Tome 30, part 1, fasciculus 116 of Rerum Italicarum Scriptores. Città di Castello, 1913.Google Scholar
Stermole, Krystina. Venetian Art and the War of the League of Cambrai (1509–17). PhD diss., Queen’s University, Kingston, 2007.Google Scholar
Taylor, Frederick Lewis. The Art of War in Italy, 1494–1529. Cambridge, 1921.Google Scholar
Thompson, Grahame. “Is Accounting Rhetorical? Methodology, Luca Pacioli, and Printing.” Accounting, Organizations and Society 16.5/6 (1991): 572–99.10.1016/0361-3682(91)90042-DCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tommasini, Oreste. La vita e gli scritti di Niccolò Machiavelli nella loro relazione col machiavellismo. 2 vols. Rome, 1883. Reprint, Naples, 1994–2003.Google Scholar
Trexler, Richard C. The Libro Cerimoniale of the Florentine Republic. Geneva, 1978.Google Scholar
Tutte le cose seguite in Lombardia dapoi chel signore Bartolomio [d’Alviano] gionto in campo: E come le ariuato il campo de Francesi… El numero e la quantita de tuta la gente sua. [Venice?], n.d., ca. 1515. British Library, C.20.c.22/53.Google Scholar
Vallet de Virille, A. “Mandement adressé le 7 mars (1492) par le roi Charles VIII aux élus pour connaître le nombre des feux du royaume.” Bibliothèque de l’École des Chartes 21 (1860): 455–57.10.3406/bec.1860.445712CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Villani, Giovanni. Nuova Cronica. Ed. Giuseppe Porta. 3 vols. Parma, 1990–91.Google Scholar
Von Liebenau, Thomas, ed. “Ain neüwe Warhafftige gezittung der kriegssleüff, so zwischen der Aidgenossen vnd künig von Franckreich ergangen seind in dem MCCCCC. Vnd xv. Jare.” Anzeiger für Schweizerische Geschichte 1.1 (1870): 251–54.Google Scholar
Waley, Daniel. “Condotte and Condottieri in the Thirteenth Century.” Proceedings of the British Academy 61 (1975): 337–71.Google Scholar
Waley, Daniel. Siena and the Sienese in the Thirteenth Century. Cambridge, 1991.10.1017/CBO9780511583865CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zug Tucci, Hannelore. “Istituzioni araldiche e pararaldiche nella vita Toscana del Duecento.” In Nobiltà e ceti dirigenti in Toscana nei secoli XI–XIII: Strutture e concetti, 65–79. Florence, 1982.Google Scholar