Determinants of the use of cereal and pulse residue for livestock feeding and soil mulching among smallholder farmers in the mixed farming system were analyzed. Crop residue (CR) is dual purpose resources in the mixed crop–livestock systems of the Ethiopian highlands. They serve as livestock feed and inputs for soil and water conservation. They are generated predominantly from cereals and pulses. However, in view of the allocation of CR, soil conservation and livestock are two competing enterprises. Identifying the determinants of the intensity of use of cereal and pulse residue may help in designing strategies for more efficient CR utilization. Data on CR were generated and its utilization was collected in two highland regions in Ethiopia from 160 households using a structured questionnaire. The data were analyzed using the multivariate Tobit model. Results of the study showed that farmers prefer using CR from pulses over CR from cereals for livestock feeding purposes. The proportion of CR from pulses that was used as feed was positively affected by education level of the farmer, livestock extension service, number of small ruminants and CR production from the previous season. Distance of farm plots from residences of the farm households negatively affected the proportions of cereal and pulse residue used for feed. The use of pulse residue increased significantly when the women participated in decision making on CR utilization. The proportion of cereal and pulse residue used for soil mulch was positively affected by the education level of the farmer, the distance between the homestead and the cultivated land, extension service, awareness about soil mulch, the slope of cultivated land, participation in farmer-to-farmer extension and CR generated in the preceding season. In view that pulse CR have better nutritive value compared with cereal CR, better utilization of CR could be achieved by maximizing the use of pulse residue as livestock feed and optimizing the use of cereal residue as soil mulch. More livestock extension on the nutritive value of pulse residue should be provided to the farmers who cultivate sloppy plots. Encouraging the culture of labor exchange among the farmers could result in increased labor availability in the farms that would facilitate the transport and storage of pulse residue and increase its use as livestock feed. Increasing the awareness among farmers about the superiority of the pulse residue over cereal residue as feed and encouraging use of cereal residue as soil mulch could optimize the utilization of CR in the household.

Agriculture in the Altiplano and Andean Mountains is experiencing threats to sustainability mainly due to intensive cultivation of quinoa driven by international markets. This recent export-oriented production system is causing the degradation of soils and reducing productivity, therefore, agro-technological innovations are necessary to sustain cropping systems while maintaining organic quality (mostly quinoa). In this work, we searched for native Trichoderma species associated with plants from the Andean highlands to obtain an environmentally friendly and organic alternative to chemical fertilizers. We obtained different Trichoderma isolates from quinoa, potato and maize roots and soil, which were identified as Trichoderma harzianum, as well as other species. Twelve of the isolates were cultured in pairs to stimulate the production and secretion of compounds of diverse chemical nature that we called collectively ‘secondary metabolites’ (SMs). Crude extracts of SMs were used to inoculate selected crops to determine their plant growth promoting potential compared with two commercially available controls, chemical fertilizer and a bio-fertilizer. Results showed that SMs significantly promoted lettuce and radish growth and increased quinoa grain yield. Indole acetic acid was detected in all SM extracts that promoted plant growth, suggesting that this plant regulator might be responsible for the plant growth promoting activity. In conclusion, the Trichoderma-derived SMs approach appears to be a promising, simple and accessible technology for small-scale farmers in order to insure the sustainability, affordability and accessibility of food production in the Andes.

Organic producers are interested in no-till cropping systems. In this study, we found that perennial clover can be converted to corn without tillage. Conversion tactics involved fall mowing in the third year of red clover, followed by between-row mowing of weeds and volunteer red clover in corn grown during the fourth year. Corn yielded 85% of the weed-free control with mowing conversion. In contrast, weed interference in tillage-based conversion and between-row tillage reduced corn yield 53%. Weed emergence was sixfold greater in the tilled conversion. Weeds were present in the corn row with mowing, but recently developed implements could control these weeds and further support a no-till conversion method.

Cover crops play an important role in agricultural sustainability. Unlike commodity cash crops, however, there has been relatively little cover crop breeding research and development. We conducted an online survey to evaluate: (a) the perspectives of organic and conventional farmers in the USA who use cover crops and (b) the specific cover crop traits that are important to farmers. We recruited participants from both organic and conventional agriculture networks and 69% of respondents reported that they farmed organic land. In addition to demographic data and information on management practices, we quantified farmer perspectives on four winter annual cover crops: (1) Austrian winter pea, (2) crimson clover, (3) hairy vetch and (4) cereal rye. Overall, respondents represented a wide range of states, farm sizes, plant hardiness zones and cash crops produced. Of the 417 full responses received, 87% of respondents reported that they used cover crops. The maximum amount farmers were willing to spend on cover crop seed varied by farmer type: 1% of conventional farmers versus 19% of organic farmers were willing to spend over US$185 ha−1 (US$75 acre−1). Organic and conventional farmers differed in terms of the reasons why they grew cover crops, with organic farmers placing greater value on the ecosystem services from cover crops. More organic (63%) than conventional (51%) farmers agreed that participatory breeding was important for cover crop variety development (P = 0.047). Both groups shared strong support for cover crop research and considered many of the same traits to be important for breeding. For the legume cover crops, nitrogen fixation was considered the most important trait, whereas winter hardiness, early vigor, biomass production and weed suppression were the most important traits for cereal rye. Our results illustrate common interests as well as differences in the perspectives between organic and conventional farmers on cover crops and can be used to inform nascent cover crop breeding efforts.

Fall-planted cover crops offer many benefits including weed suppressive residues in spring sown crops when controlled and left on the soil surface. However, vegetable growers have been slow to adopt direct-seeding (no-till) into cover crop residues. Field studies were conducted in 2009 and 2010 near Paterson, WA and Urbana, IL to evaluate mortality of rye and common vetch (WA) hairy vetch (IL) cover crops, weed density and biomass, and snap bean growth and yield following four cover crop control methods utilizing a roller–crimper. Rye had higher mortality than common and hairy vetch by roller-crimping, and carfentrazone applied after roller crimping only slightly increased vetch mortality. Heavy residues of rye and escaped vetch were difficult to plant into, often resulting in lower snap bean populations. Rye and hairy vetch residues suppressed final weed biomass, while common vetch reduced weed biomass 1 of 2 years. Escaped plants of both vetch species became a weed. Snap bean yields were inconsistent and often lower following cover crops compared with a fallow treatment. Being able to completely control cover crops and to plant, manage escaped weeds and mechanically harvest in the presence of heavy residues are challenges that deter vegetable growers from readily adopting these systems.

The registration of Geographical Indications (GIs) under the European Union (EU) legislation requires collective action and considerable efforts borne by multiple actors such as producers, processors, public authorities and research centers. We analyze their efforts, risks and benefits by comparing two EU GI registration processes in Italy and Austria, namely the Sorana bean Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) and the Perry from Mostviertel PGI. Results from the institutional and transaction costs analysis suggest that intensive interaction for solving conflicting interests, negotiating quality standards and defining common rules might pay off in indirect benefits and reduced risks. In particular, an inclusion of diverse and heterogeneous interest groups and a high degree of direct enterprise participation along the GI application process (as observed in the Italian case) generate benefits such as trust and social cohesion, which then support the actual use of the GI label and a better implementation of associated quality standards. A supportive legal framework with assistance from public authorities can back up the community of producers not only in technical aspects, but also as mediators when conflicts seem to be difficult to solve. As there seems to be a positive relationship between the intensity and effectiveness of collective action and the likelihood of achieving broadly accepted standards and social cohesion needed for successful GI implementation, the question for future research would not be how to avoid collective efforts but how to effectively organize the interaction among heterogeneous producer groups.

Interseeding annual clovers in cereal grains may help organic producers reduce use of tillage following cereal harvest. Using clovers that winterkill would minimize need for tillage in the spring also. The objective of this study was to evaluate seedling emergence and survival of berseem clover (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) in winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Berseem clover (hereafter, referred to as berseem) was planted 0, 2 and 4 weeks after initiation of winter wheat growth in the spring. Berseem density was highest when planted on April 12, 2 weeks after winter wheat broke dormancy. Establishment density was 40–80% less with the other planting dates. A dry interval during the 5 weeks preceding winter wheat harvest reduced seedling survival of berseem, killing more than 80% of seedlings. Winter wheat yield was reduced at the last planting date of berseem, which was attributed to mechanical injury to winter wheat by the drill when planting berseem. Berseem may not be viable for interseeding at this location or in drier regions. Clover species that are more drought tolerant will be needed.

With increasing urbanization and environmental degradation, urban landscapes are increasingly expected to provide a wide range of ecosystem services typically associated with rural areas, including biodiversity conservation and food production. Because residential landscapes constitute the largest single urban land use, domestic gardens have emerged as a topic of research interest and planning concern. The ecosystem services (or disservices) these landscapes provide, however, have not been rigorously measured, nor have tradeoffs between the services they provide been assessed. In this study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 59 African American, Chinese-origin or Mexican-origin households with on-lot or vacant lot food gardens in Chicago. Crop plants and cultivated ornamental plants on the lot were inventoried and mapped at the species level. A total of 123 edible plant taxa from 25 families and 288 ornamental plant species from 85 families were identified, for a combined total of 387 species from 90 families. Cumulatively, the gardens of African American households were relatively rich in ornamental plant species and families, while those of Chinese-origin households had a depauperate flora. Crop plant richness was more even across sample types. Shade trees and a developed shrub layer were absent from most gardens, possibly representing a tradeoff in ecosystem services in favor of food production. The richness of the aggregate 2.1 ha of residential property inventoried in this study was comparable with or exceeded that of a 34 ha prairie remnant west of Chicago. However, only 35 (9.6%) of the inventoried species were native to the Chicago area.

A field experiment was established to test the impact on crop yield, total productivity and biological di-nitrogen (N2) fixation of a self-regenerating annual legume, subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum L.), grown in mixtures with experimental perennial wheat lines. Legume content was altered in one intermediate wheatgrass (Thinopyrum intermedium (Host) Barkworth & Dewey) and two wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) × wheatgrass (Th. spp.) hybrid-based stands by sowing the legume in the same drill row as the perennial crop, or in every second or third row, spatially separated from the perennial crop. The hybrid perennial crops were more vigorous than intermediate wheatgrass in year 1, competing strongly and reducing legume biomass over the 2 yr period leading to reduced inputs of fixed nitrogen (N). However, both hybrid crops declined to negligible levels following the first summer with only the intermediate wheatgrass persisting in adequate densities in year 2. Spatially separating the perennial crop from the legume in alternate drill rows increased legume biomass by 32–128% and clover regeneration by 31–195%, and reduced weed incursion by up to 47% compared with where it was sown in mixed rows. However, spatial separation more than halved grain yields in year 2 compared with where the perennial crop was grown in every drill row. This likely reflected changed competition dynamics where the modified spatial configurations at sowing limited the perennial crops’ access to resources. When estimates of the total inputs of fixed N from the clover (5–165 kg N ha−1 in year 2) were compared with the amounts of N removed in grain by the different perennial wheat treatments (10–55 kg N ha−1 in year 1), it appears feasible that a companion legume could fix sufficient N to maintain the N balance of a cropping system producing 1.5–2.0 t grain ha−1 each year. The inclusion of a legume increased total above-ground biomass by up to 142%, particularly in year 2, but this did not translate into increased grain yields. It seems unlikely that a self-regenerating annual legume will be able to effectively coexist among a dense perennial wheat canopy where both species are sown in the same drill row. Further research is required to develop strategies to channel more of the additional resources apparently accessed by the companion legume into grain production.

Green manure crops must produce high biomass to supply biological N, increase organic matter and control weeds. The objectives of our study were to assess above-ground biomass productivity and weed suppression of clover (Trifolium spp.) green manures in an organic soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]-winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)-corn (Zea mays L.) rotation in eastern Nebraska in three cycles (2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14). Treatments were green manure species [red clover (T. pratense L.) and white clover (T. repens L.)] undersown into winter wheat in March and green manure mowing regime (one late summer mowing or no mowing). We measured wheat productivity and grain protein at wheat harvest, and clover and weed above-ground biomass as dry matter (DM) at wheat harvest, 35 days after wheat harvest, in October and in April before clover termination. Winter wheat grain yields and grain protein were not affected by undersown clovers. DM was higher for red than for white clover at most sampling times. Red clover produced between 0.4 and 5.5 Mg ha−1 in the fall and 0.4–5.2 Mg ha−1 in the spring. White clover produced between 0.1 and 2.5 Mg ha−1 in the fall and 0.2–3.1 Mg ha−1 in the spring. Weed DM was lower under red clover than under white clover at most sampling times. In the spring, weed DM ranged from 0.0 to 0.6 Mg ha−1 under red clover and from 0.0 to 3.1 Mg ha−1 under white clover. Mowing did not consistently affect clover or weed DM. For organic growers in eastern Nebraska, red clover undersown into winter wheat can be a productive green manure with good weed suppression potential.

This commentary argues for strengthening research and analysis of food workers' rights as part of a more comprehensive sustainable food systems approach. Starting with a broad definition of sustainability, one which includes social, as well as ecological, and economic elements, the author outlines current critiques of alternative food movement actors. She then looks at existing food labor activism and successes, providing them as examples for how sustainable food movement actors and researchers should move forward.

Continuous conventional tillage coupled with unsystematic cereal/legume rotations has promoted low crop productivity on smallholder farms. A multi-locational study was established in three agro-ecoregions (AEs) of Zimbabwe. The aim of the study was to determine the effect of four tillage systems (conventional plowing, planting basins, rip-line and animal traction direct seeding systems) on maize (Zea mays L.), cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp] and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] yields, and evaluate the economic performance of the conservation agriculture (CA) systems relative to conventional plowing. Each farmer was a replicate of the trial over the three cropping seasons. In the high (750–1000 mm per annum) and low (450–650 mm) rainfall AEs, conventional practice and CA systems gave similar maize grain yield. Under medium rainfall conditions (500–800 mm) planting basins, rip-line and direct seeding systems gave 547, 548 and 1690 kg ha−1 more maize yield than the conventional practice. In the high and low rainfall AEs, conventional practice and planting basins had the lowest maize production risk. Cowpea yield was 35 and 45% higher in the rip-line and direct seeding than conventional practice. Soybean yield was higher in rip-line (36%) and direct seeding (51%) systems than conventional practice. Direct seeding system gave the highest net benefits in all AEs. A combination of long-term biophysical and socio-economic assessments of the different cropping systems tested in our study is critical in order to fully understand their performance under different AEs of Zimbabwe.