Article contents
The Hague Conferences and ‘international community’: a politics of conceptual innovation
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 31 August 2016
Abstract
This article asks when, how, and why states started to use the concept of international community in the shared language of diplomacy and international law. It argues that the concept was accepted to the interstate language as a result of debates over international institutions, which were to acquire a universal character, at the Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907. The article suggests that conceptual changes in interstate language should be understood as products of rhetorical power struggles, in which some arguments lose the battle while others prevail, some concepts are discarded while others modified. The article suggests a model of conceptual change that explains an innovation in interstate language. First, it draws attention to collective assertive speech acts at diplomatic events that signal changes in international politics. Second, it examines whether such acts implicate conceptual innovations. Third, it posits that the composition of epistemic community assembled at the Hague determines the nature of conceptual innovation. Fourth, it demonstrates how rhetorical interventions into debates at the conference introduce and mould relevant concepts. Fifth, it illuminates how contextualisation of the conference interventions in professional debates helps us understand the polemical nature of arguments and the scope of conceptual innovation.
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References
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34 I use the concept of ‘epistemic community’ with reservations as to ‘shared knowledge’ and degree of ‘community’ among jurists-diplomats gathered at the Hague. What they shared was perhaps training in law and professional interest in the customs of interstate ‘intercourse’, while on many other accounts their interaction could be best described by dissensus and defined as attempts to win debates rather than secure genuine learning and diffusion of ‘the shared knowledge’. Nevertheless, the concept helps to identify participants as a group of acclaimed jurists contributing to a debate the terms of which they all understood.
35 See Martens assessing the conference in retrospect in ‘Professor Martens on the peace conference’, The Times (24 October 1899), Issue 35968.
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64 Paradoxically, the effect of rhetorical persuasion and conceptual innovation was such that even the opponents of arbitration, for example, A. T. Mahan, ended up adopting the rhetoric of international community. For his use of the term see Mahan, Alfred Thayer, Armaments and Arbitration, Or, the Place of Force in the International Relations of States (The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd, 1912), pp. 86 Google Scholar, 107.
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67 For instance, a Colombian delegate defended in this way restrictions on the use of anchored automatic contact mines, ibid., 1:285; other examples include justification of proposals for a long and renewable term of office for the judges of the court of arbitration, ibid., 1:355; and arguments for states to bear expenses of the court in the interest of the community of nations, ibid., 1:382–4.
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71 I borrow the focus on speaking as doing and contrasting such acts with the conventional use from Skinner, Visions of Politics 1, ‘Regarding Method’, pp. 101–2.
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86 Martens, Sovremennoe Pravo Tsivilizovannyh Narodov, 1:217, p. 221.
87 Cf. Descamps, ‘Essai sur L’Organisation de L’Arbitrage International’, p. 13; Martens, Sovremennoe Pravo Tsivilizovannyh Narodov.
88 Schücking, The International Union of the Hague Conferences, pp. 217–34; Lawrence, Thomas J., The Society of Nations: Its Past, Present, and Possible Future (New York: Oxford University Press, 1919)Google Scholar; for a more recent legal evolutionary interpretation of international community history see Cassese, Antonio, International Law in a Divided World (Oxford; New York: Clarendon Press, 1986)Google Scholar.
89 Holls, The Peace Conference at the Hague, pp. 364–5.
90 Buzan, Barry, From International to World Society? English School Theory and the Social Structure of Globalisation (Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 108–111 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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