Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-lnqnp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T11:28:39.991Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Carl Schmitt—Political Theologian?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 July 2015

Aaron B. Roberts
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

“Political theology” is now a fixture within political theory's lexicon. Although Carl Schmitt's Political Theology (1922) is identified as the contemporary locus classicus for the concept, that work's primary task is only to elaborate a “sociology of juristic concepts.” Beginning in the 1990s, however, Schmitt's entire corpus has increasingly been interpreted as one motivated by “political theology” in a stronger sense—as political action based upon faith in (Christian) revelation. I challenge this thesis by (1) examining its history, (2) drawing attention to the many aspects of Schmitt's (mostly Weimar-era) work that are deeply at odds with this thesis, and (3) reexamining his (mostly postwar) remarks ordinarily cited to bolster the thesis. Ultimately, the core of Schmitt's thought lies elsewhere; returning to the purported father of political theology brings clarity to the bourgeoning discussion of this topic within the discipline.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Review of Politics , Volume 77 , Issue 3 , Summer 2015 , pp. 449 - 474
Copyright
Copyright © University of Notre Dame 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 E.g., Connolly, William, Why I Am not a Secularist (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999)Google Scholar; Taylor, Charles, A Secular Age (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007)Google Scholar; Lilla, Mark, Stillborn God (New York: Knopf, 2007)Google Scholar; Gillespie, Michael, Theological Origins of Modernity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Habermas, Jürgen, Between Naturalism and Religion (Cambridge: Polity, 2008)Google Scholar. Earlier treatments include Löwith, Karl, Meaning in History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949)Google Scholar; Voegelin, Eric, Collected Works, vol. 5 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2000)Google Scholar.

2 Agamben, Giorgio, Kingdom and the Glory (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011)Google Scholar; Agamben, , The Time That Remains (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Badiou, Alain, Saint Paul (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Žižek, Slavoj, Ticklish Subject (London: Verso, 1999), 127–70Google Scholar; Žižek, Puppet and the Dwarf (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Derrida, Jacques, “Force of Law,” Cardozo Law Review 11 (1990): 919–1045 Google Scholar; Derrida, , Rogues (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005)Google Scholar; Derrida, , Beast and the Sovereign (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The nonliberal Left's preoccupation with politico-theological themes is foreshadowed by Benjamin, Walter, Gesammelte Schriften (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1991–)Google Scholar; Bloch, Ernst, Spirit of Utopia (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2000)Google Scholar; Taubes, Jacob, Political Theology of Paul (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004)Google Scholar; Taubes, Occidental Eschatology (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2009)Google Scholar.

3 E.g., de Vries, Hent and Sullivan, Lawrence E., eds. Political Theologies (New York: Fordham University Press, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gontier, Thierry, “From ‘Political Theology’ to ‘Political Religion,’” Review of Politics 75, no. 1 (2013): 25–43 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McCormick, William, “Jacques Maritain on Political Theology,” European Journal of Political Theory 12, no. 2 (2013): 175–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Bernstein, Richard J., ed., “Political Theology?,” special issue, Social Research 80, no. 1 (2013)Google Scholar.

4 Schindler, Alfred and Scholz, Frithard, “Die Theologie Carl Schmitts,” in Religionstheorie und politische Theologie, ed. Taubes, J. (Munich: Fink, 1983), 1:165Google Scholar.

5 Lilla, Mark, Reckless Mind (New York: New York Review Books, 2001), 67Google Scholar.

6 McCormick, John, “Political Theory and Political Theology,” Political Theory 26, no. 6 (1998): 831CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

7 E.-W. Böckenförde, “Auf dem Weg zum Klassiker,” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, July 11, 1997, 35.

8 Lauermann, Manfred, “Carl Schmitt—Jenseits biographischer Mode,” in Die eigentlich katholische Verschärfung, ed. Wacker, B. (Munich: Fink, 1994), 299Google Scholar.

9 For good literature surveys, see Müller, Jan-Werner, A Dangerous Mind (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 156–68, 202–6Google Scholar; Lilla, Reckless, esp. 50–55, 67–68; Assmann, Jan, Herrschaft und Heil (Munich: Hanser, 2000), 15–28 Google Scholar. For representative English-language studies in this tradition, see, e.g., Palaver, Wolfgang, “Carl Schmitt on Nomos and Space,” Telos, no. 106 (1996): 105–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hooker, William, Carl Schmitt's International Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. As a guide to the relevant literature in Spanish and Italian, see Vatter, Miguel, “Political Theology of Carl Schmitt,” in Oxford Handbook of Carl Schmitt, ed. Meierhenrich, Jens and Simons, Oliver (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014)Google Scholar; Herrero, Montserrat, “The Aperture to Transcendence as Political-Theological Event in Carl Schmitt's Thought,” Revista de Ciencias Sociales (2012): 411–35Google Scholar.

10 E.g., Agamben, Kingdom and the Glory, 7, 15, 193; Assmann, Herrschaft, 11, 15–28.

11 E.g., Žižek, Slavoj, et al. , The Neighbor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Milbank, John, Theology and Social Theory (Oxford: Blackwell, 2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Robbins, Jeffrey, Radical Democracy and Political Theology (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kahn, Paul, Political Theology (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011)Google Scholar; Hammill, Graham et al. , eds., Political Theology and Early Modernity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 For critics, see, e.g., Bendersky, Joseph, “New Evidence, Old Contradictions,” Telos no. 132 (2005)Google Scholar: 67ff.; McCormick, John, Carl Schmitt's Critique of Liberalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 114, 263–64Google Scholar; Cristi, Renato, Carl Schmitt and Authoritarian Liberalism (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1998), 171–73Google Scholar; Balakrishnan, Gopal, The Enemy (London: Verso, 2000), 224–25, 275, 281, 293Google Scholar; Scheuerman, William, Carl Schmitt (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999), 3, 226–33, 249, 337Google Scholar; Müller, Dangerous Mind, 202–06; Bernd Rüthers, “Retter vor dem Antichrist?” Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, November 28, 1997, 14. Cf., Kennedy, Ellen, Constitutional Failure (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004), 8, 182–83, 235–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Mannheim, Karl, Ideology and Utopia (London: Routledge, 1979), 53Google Scholar; Manemann, Jürgen, Carl Schmitt und die Politische Theologie (Münster: Aschendorff, 2002)Google Scholar, 157, 160, 166; Richard Faber, “Carl Schmitt, der Römer,” in Katholische Verschärfung, 263, 268; Groh, Ruth, Arbeit an der Heillosigkeit der Welt (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1998), 19–23 Google Scholar; Blumenberg, Hans, Legitimacy of the Modern Age (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1985)Google Scholar, 101; Gross, Raphael, Carl Schmitt and the Jews (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2007)Google Scholar, esp. 89, 97, 112, 131, 227, 234; Derrida, Beast, 1:17, 54, 110, 154; “Force of Law,” 991–93; Lefort, Claude, Democracy and Political Theory (Cambridge: Polity, 1988), 215–16, 224, 254–55Google Scholar.

14 Weber, Max, From Max Weber (New York: Oxford University Press, 1958), 152Google Scholar; Sartre, Jean-Paul, Existentialism Is a Humanism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 22–29 Google Scholar; Berlin, Isaiah, Four Essays on Liberty (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), 167–72Google Scholar; Honig, Bonnie, Political Theory (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993), 104–8Google Scholar. See also Kierkegaard, Søren, Concluding Unscientific Postscript (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 13–16, 84–89, 96Google Scholar.

15 Plato, Republic 2.379a5–6; Aristotle, Metaphysics 6.1 1026a18–23; 11.7 1065b1–3.

16 E.g., Schmitt, Carl, Die geistesgeschichtliche Lage des heutigen Parlamentarismus (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1991)Google Scholar, 82 (hereafter GLP); Römischer Katholizismus und politische Form (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1984)Google Scholar, 22, 48 (hereafter RK); Politische Theologie (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1979)Google Scholar, 79, 84 (hereafter PT); Der Begriff des Politischen (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1991), 84, 92–94 Google Scholar (hereafter BdP); Politische Romantik (Munich: Duncker & Humblot, 1925)Google Scholar, 87 (hereafter PR) (analogical); PT, 49, 51–52, 59, 63; see also 76; BdP, 71; Politische Theologie II (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1990)Google Scholar, 41, 54, 56, 109 (hereafter PT2); Leviathan in der Staatslehre des Thomas Hobbes (Cologne: Hohenheim, 1982)Google Scholar, 169 (hereafter L) (metaphysics-theology).

17 Schmitt, Carl, Glossarium (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1991)Google Scholar, 19, 189, 310 (hereafter G); BdP, 73, 80–84, 88–92.

18 Heidegger, Martin, Identity and Difference (New York: Harper, 1969), 54ffGoogle Scholar.

19 G, 80; see also 232, 260.

20 For accounts of some of the sources, see Feil, Ernst, “Von der ‘politischen Theologie’ zur ‘Theologie der Revolution?,’” in Diskussion zur ‘Theologie der Revolution,’ ed. Feil, E. et al. (Munich: Kaiser, 1969), 113–26Google Scholar; Assmann, Herrschaft, 15–28.

21 PT, 49ff., 56, 63, 64.

22 Schmitt, Carl, Wert des Staates und die Bedeutung des Einzelnen (Tübingen: Mohr, 1914), 55; see also 67; PR, 88–89 Google Scholar; Deutsche Literaturzeitung, no. 47 (1925): 2308Google Scholar; Die Diktatur (Munich: Duncker & Humblot, 1928), 138–39Google Scholar (hereafter D); GLP, 20, 41, 89; BdP, 89; Positionen und Begriffe (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1994)Google Scholar, 153, 161 (hereafter PuB); Verfassungslehre (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1954)Google Scholar, 80 (hereafter VL); Über die drei Arten des rechtswissenschaftlichen Denkens (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1993), 22; L, 22Google Scholar.

23 Schmitt, Carl, Donoso Cortés in gesamteuropäischer Interpretation (Cologne: Greven, 1950)Google Scholar, 10 (hereafter DC); Peterson, Erik, Theological Tractates, ed. and trans. Hollerich, Michael J. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2011), 104–5Google Scholar, 233n168.

24 Metz, Johann Baptist, Zum Begriff der neuen politischen Theologie (Mainz: Matthias-Grünewald, 1997), 163–64, 181Google Scholar; Theology of the World (New York: Herder, 1969), 107Google Scholar; Faith in History and Society (New York: Crossroad, 2007), xiGoogle Scholar.

25 Gutiérrez, Gustavo, Essential Writings (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1996), 23–28 Google Scholar; Theology of Liberation (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1988), esp. 126–30Google Scholar.

26 L, 139, 142, 155, 176.

27 PT2, 87. Although I have freely borrowed from existing English translations when they are sufficiently literal, responsibility for translation is ultimately my own.

28 PT2, 69, 80, 83–85.

29 Hugo Ball, “Carl Schmitts Politische Theologie,” in Religionstheorie; Taubes, Jacob, To Carl Schmitt (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013)Google Scholar; Taubes, Political Theology of Paul; Maritain, Jacques, Collected Works (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1995–), 11:214–15Google Scholar.

30 Meier, Heinrich, The Lesson of Carl Schmitt (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 27, 68, 78, 97, 134–35; Meier, Carl Schmitt and Leo Strauss (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995)Google Scholar, 30; Meier, Leo Strauss and the Theologico-Political Problem (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 85Google Scholar. Meuter, Günter, Der Katechon (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1994)Google Scholar, 77, 80, 188–89, 19ff., 374, 464 follows Meier in central claims.

31 Habermas, Jürgen, New Conservatism (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1989), 136Google Scholar; Between Naturalism and Religion, 146; Power of Religion (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011), 23, 30Google Scholar.

32 E.g., Beiner, Ronald, Civil Religion (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), esp. 359–60, 364, 368CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

33 Meier, Heinrich, “Philosopher as Enemy,” Graduate Faculty Philosophy Journal 17, nos. 1–2 (1994): 329CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Leo Strauss, 81n15. See also Meuter, Katechon, 287.

34 Schmitt, Carl, Ex Captivitate Salus (Munich: Duncker & Humblot, 2002)Google Scholar, 12, 53; see also 31 (hereafter ECS); G, 101; see also 212, 238; Schmitt, Carl and Mohler, Armin, Briefwechsel mit einem seiner Schüler (Berlin: Akademie, 1995)Google Scholar, 95. See also Schmitt, Carl, “Drei Stufen historischer Sinngebung,” Universitas 5, no. 8 (1950): 927–28Google Scholar.

35 Schmitt, Carl, Land und Meer (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1993), 19, 80Google Scholar; Staat, Großraum, Nomos (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1995)Google Scholar, 436 (hereafter SGN); Der Nomos der Erde (Cologne: Greven, 1950)Google Scholar, 28ff., 211 et passim (hereafter NdE); ECS, 31; G, 63, 70, 80, 153, 165, 272, 273; “Drei Stufen”; “Die andere Hegel-Linie,” Christ und Welt 10, no. 30 (1957): 2Google Scholar; Verfassungsrechtliche Aufsätze (Berlin: Duncker & Humbolt, 1958), 428–29Google Scholar (herafter VA); PT2, 81; Schmitt, Carl and Taubes, Jacob, Briefwechsel mit Materialien (Munich: Fink, 2011)Google Scholar, 38; 2 Thess. 2:6–7. See Grossheutschi, Felix, Carl Schmitt und die Lehre vom Katechon (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

36 Cf. G, 23 with G, 71. See also G, 17; PT2, 63, 101n1; VA, 422; ECS, 89.

37 RK 49.

38 G, v, 131, 165.

39 G, 283; “Drei Stufen,” 930. Linn's letters are reprinted in Tommissen, Piet, ed., “Amicus Schmitt, sed magis amica veritas,” in De precisie van het lezen, ed. Stuy, J., Van Bellingen, J., and Van den Bossche, M. (Brussels: VUBPress, 2003), 223–41Google Scholar.

40 Schmitt and Mohler, Briefwechsel, 121–22, 124.

41 Schmitt and Taubes, Briefwechsel, 37. See also PT2, 40.

42 Taubes, To Carl Schmitt, 44; Böckenförde, E.-W. in Complexio Oppositorum, ed. Quaritsch, H. (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1988)Google Scholar, 153. Unmentioned, however, in Böckenförde, E.-W., Wissenschaft, Politik, Verfassungsgericht (Berlin: Suhrkamp, 2011), 373–77Google Scholar.

43 Blei, Franz, Briefe an Carl Schmitt (Heidelberg: Manutius, 1995), 32Google Scholar.

44 Nichtweiss, Per Barbara, Erik Peterson (Freiburg: Herder, 1992), 728–29Google Scholar.

45 Per Nichtweiss, Erik Peterson, 735. That Peterson's earlier critique of political theology was directed not at Schmitt but rather at the so-called Reichstheologen is revealed by a letter from Peterson's estate. See ibid., 766.

46 Voegelin, Eric, Collected Works, vol. 30 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2007), 184Google Scholar.

47 Armin Mohler, “Carl Schmitt und die ‘Konservative Revolution,’” in Complexio Oppositorum, 146.

48 E.g., Meier, Lesson, 178–79.

49 Bendersky, Joseph W., “Love, Law, and War,” Telos, no. 147 (2009): 175, 189#x2013;90Google Scholar; “Schmitt's Diaries,” in Oxford Handbook of Carl Schmitt.

50 Mehring, Reinhard, Carl Schmitt: Aufstieg und Fall (Munich: Beck, 2009), 184–85, 196, 268Google Scholar.

51 Pace Karl-Egon Lönne, “Carl Schmitt und der Katholizismus der Weimarer Republik,” in Katholische Verschärfung, 34–35; Maschke, Günter, “La Rappresentazione Cattolica,” Der Staat 28 (1989)Google Scholar: 564; Meuter, Katechon, 319 et passim. Dahlheimer, Manfred, Carl Schmitt und der deutsche Katholizismus (Paderborn: Schöningh, 1998)Google Scholar, 212, 286, by acknowledging that Schmitt “went his own way,” was “in principle indifferent to what [was] held up as the final absolute” in politics, and “knew that he was not bound to the parameters of the Catholic theory of the state,” implicitly undermines his conclusion that Schmitt wrote as a genuinely “Catholic author” (572).

52 Koenen, Pace Andreas, Der Fall Carl Schmitt (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1995)Google Scholar. See Bendersky, Joseph, Journal of Modern History 69, no. 4 (1997): 892CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Böckenförde, E.-W., Kirche und christlicher Glaube (Munich: LIT, 2004), 129ffGoogle Scholar.

53 Cf. Thoma, Richard, “On the Ideology of Parliamentarism,” in Crisis of Parliamentary Democracy, ed. Kennedy, E. (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988), 82 with GLP, 5Google Scholar.

54 PT2, 27–30.

55 Vatter, “Political Theology”; Maschke, “Rappresentazione Cattolica,” 560ff.

56 Schmitt, Carl, Gespräch über die Macht und den Zugang zum Machthaber (Pfullingen: Neske, 1954)Google Scholar, 21; VL, 77; Rom. 13:1 (NRSV).

57 Schmitt, Carl, “Die Sichtbarkeit der Kirche,” Summa 2 (1917): 74; see also 73, 75, 79Google Scholar.

58 RK, 14, 31–32.

59 VL, 205–11, emphasis added; see also xiii, 161, 386.

60 D, 139n2.

61 L, 51. See also D, 32, 130.

62 Gal. 3:28 (NRSV). See also Acts 10:34–43; Matt. 28:19.

63 RK, 32; see also 12–13, 51; GLP, 89; D, 46.

64 PuB, 162; BdP, 55.

65 Schmitt, “Sichtbarkeit,” 78; see also 71.

66 BdP, 59, 61.

67 BdP, 64, 58; Meier, Lesson, 13; Gross, Carl Schmitt, 184–85, 232.

68 Strauss, Leo, “Notes on Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political ,” in The Concept of the Political, expanded ed., trans. Schwab, George (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007), 111Google Scholar.

69 BdP, 121.

70 Nolte, Ernst, Deutschland und der Kalte Krieg (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1985), esp. 146–48Google Scholar.

71 Gross, Carl Schmitt, 182, 196–99, 214–18, 232; Müller, Dangerous Mind, 46–47, 58, 139; von Medem in G, v–vi.

72 Bendersky, Joseph, Carl Schmitt (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 224–27, 237–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mehring, Carl Schmitt, 378–80.

73 Schmitt, Carl, Antworten in Nürnberg (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 55, 65, 71–72, 76, 86; Bendersky, Joseph, “Carl Schmitt's Path to Nuremberg,” Telos, no. 139 (2007): 24, 26–27 Google Scholar; Mehring, Reinhard, “Ein ‘Katholischer Laie Deutscher Volks- und Staatsangehörigkeit?,’” Revista de Ciencias Sociales (2012): 396Google Scholar; Mehring, Carl Schmitt, 449; Müller, Dangerous Mind, 19.

74 Bernd Wacker, Katholische Verschärfung, 7, emphasis added; see also 285.

75 Meier, Lesson, xvi; see also 199–202.

76 E.g., E.-W. Böckenförde, “Politische Theorie und Politische Theologie,” in Religionstheorie, esp. 1:19–22.

77 E.g., Taubes, To Carl Schmitt, 4. Chapters 1–3 and 4 of PT reprint Schmitt, Carl, “Soziologie des Souveränitätsbegriffes und politische Theologie,” in Hauptprobleme der Soziologie, ed. Palyi, M. (Munich: Duncker & Humblot, 1922–23), 3–35 Google Scholar and “Die Staatsphilosophie der Gegenrevolution,” Archiv für Rechts- und Wirtschaftsphilosophie 16 (1922): 121–31Google Scholar, respectively.

78 PT, 7.

79 PR, 23–24.

80 BdP, 80–82, 88–89.

81 NdE, 92, 96. Also PT2, 107, 111; ECS, 70, 75; G, 106; L, 147–48; BdP, 15, 117.

82 Löwith, Karl, Martin Heidegger and European Nihilism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 137–38, 144Google Scholar; Schmitt, “Drei Stufen,” 927–28; DC, 99.

83 VL, 77–78.

84 BdP, 42–43.

85 PT, 49–50, 55, 58–59.

86 PT2, 22, 30; also 56, 98, 101n1. See also Schmitt, Carl and Schickel, Joachim, Gespräche mit Carl Schmitt (Berlin: Merve, 1993), 57Google Scholar. Religious institutions (e.g., the Roman Catholic Church) can possess a “formal, juristic character,” but they do so by means of their analogy with “secular jurisprudence,” which functions as “an intermediary for law that is already valid” (RK, 49–50).

87 PT, 49–50, 55, emphasis added; see also 60. In basic agreement are, e.g., Staff, Ilse, “Zum Begriff der politischen Theologie bei Carl Schmitt,” in Christentum und modernes Recht, ed. Dilcher, G. and Staff, I. (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1984), 182–84, 193, 203–5Google Scholar; Hermann Lübbe, “Politische Theologie als Theologie repolitisierter Religion,” in Religionstheorie, 1:47; Lukács, Georg, Destruction of Reason (Atlantic Highlands: Humanities, 1981)Google Scholar, 652; Kantorowicz, Ernst, The King's Two Bodies (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997), 18–19 Google Scholar, 42–43, 114–15, 185, 505–6.

88 VL, 80, emphasis added.

89 Kelsen, Hans, Das Problem der Souveränität (Tübingen: Mohr, 1920), 21Google Scholar; see also 320; Der soziologische und der juristische Staatsbegriff (Tübingen: Mohr, 1922), 222, 245–47, 253Google Scholar. Also Essays in Legal and Moral Philosophy (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1973), esp. 68–82 Google Scholar.

90 BdP, 38 et passim.

91 BdP, 36, 64, emphasis added. Preserved almost verbatim in Schmitt, Carl, Der Begriff des Politischen, 3rd ed. (Hamburg: Hanseatische Verlagsanstalt, 1933), 18–19, 46Google Scholar.

92 PT, 7.

93 VL, 223, 238, 282–86. See also PT, 63.

94 E.g., Meier, Lesson, 101; Taubes, Political Theology of Paul, 67–68.

95 PT, 69–83; RK, 25–26; GLP, 81–83.

96 PT, 83, emphasis added.

97 PT, 73ff.

98 PT, 75; DC, 71.

99 PT, 73–74; RK, 13. Meier, Lesson, xii–xiii, 146 argues that Schmitt writes “more ‘like a Protestant,’” but this does not gel with Schmitt's biography.

100 DC, 69–70, 73, 75–77, 79; see also 12–13, 19, 52, 105, 108–9.

101 E.g., Meier, Lesson, xviii, 102; Lilla, Reckless Mind, 71–72.

102 Hollerich, Michael, “Carl Schmitt,” in Blackwell Companion to Political Theology, ed. Scott, P. and Cavanaugh, W. T. (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004), 119Google Scholar.

103 E.g., SGN, 139–51.

104 PT, 44–45; L, 113.

105 PT2, 121–22.

106 D, 35, 118–19; see also 21ff.

107 L, 20–22, 88, 126; Hobbes, Thomas, Leviathan (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996)Google Scholar, chap. 42 (p. 345), chap. 43 (p. 407 et passim).

108 L, 81–84, 125–26; Hobbes, Leviathan, chap. 40 (p. 323 et passim).

109 BdP, 123.

110 Meier, Lesson, 123, 203; see also 21–30, 51, 76, 108–12, 202–4 ; Carl Schmitt, 66–69, 77.

111 E.g., Meuter, Katechon, 14ff., 189n275, 195, 482 et passim; Barbara Nichtweiss, “Apokalyptische Verfassungslehren,” and Wacker, “Carl Schmitts Katholizismus,” in Katholische Verschärfung, 63–64 and 292–93; Manemann, Carl Schmitt, 7ff.; Mehring, Reinhard, Pathetisches Denken (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1989)Google Scholar, 22, 221; Groh, Arbeit, 19–24.

112 Agamben, Kingdom and the Glory, 7; Assmann, Herrschaft, 20, 22, 24.

113 BdP, 80–83, 87, 94.

114 Comte, Auguste, Système de politique positive (Paris: Mathias, 1851–54), 1:360–62; DC, 108Google Scholar.

115 PT2, 114; see also 110; Blumenberg, Legitimacy, 138 et passim.

116 Heidegger, Martin, Basic Writings (New York: Harper, 2008), 246ffGoogle Scholar.; Foucault, Michel, Order of Things (New York: Vintage Books, 1994), 387 et passimGoogle Scholar.

117 Böckenförde, E.-W., State, Society, and Liberty (New York: Berg, 1991), 45Google Scholar.