Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T22:18:24.116Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Enhancing Care

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 October 2018

Teodora Manea*
Affiliation:
University of Exeter

Abstract

If moral enhancement is possible, the caring capacity of human beings should be considered one of the first and most important traits for augmentation. To assess the plausibility of enhancing care, I will explore how the concept and its associated human dispositions are socially constructed, and identify some of the critical points and complexities. Scientific advances regarding neuro-enhancing substances that allegedly make humans more caring will be considered and assessed against the main principles that govern the ethics of care approach. I argue that given the relational and contextual nature of care, its enhancement, if targeted at the individual level, can be more disadvantageous than helpful, by overlooking the “webs of care” people are situated in, and the role of social institutions in shaping behaviours, duties, attitudes, and principles.

Type
Papers
Copyright
Copyright © The Royal Institute of Philosophy and the contributors 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Mayeroff, M., On Caring (New York: Harper Collins, 1971), 23Google Scholar.

2 Persson, I. and Savulescu, J., ‘The Perils of Cognitive Enhancement and the Urgent Imperative to Enhance the Moral Character of Humanity’, Journal of Applied Philosophy 25:3 (2008), 162176CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

3 Hauskeller, M., Better Humans? Understanding the Enhancement Project (Durham: Acumen, 2013)Google Scholar.

4 J. Savulescu, ‘Unfit for Life: Genetically Enhance Humanity or Face Extinction’, 2009: https://vimeo.com/7515623. Savulescu presented an argument about deficient human nature by invoking love. He deplored the rate of divorce in contemporary societies, and used evolutionary theories to provide an explanation for our failed monogamy, thereby ignoring socio-economic factors that have empowered women to exit no longer wanted marital relationships.

5 Zak, P. J., Kurzban, R., Ahmadi, S., Swerdloff, R. S., Park, J., Efremidze, L., Redwine, K., Morgan, K., and Matzner, W., ‘Testosterone Administration Decreases Generosity in the Ultimatum Game’, PLoS One 4:12 (2009), 17CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

6 According to Molly Crockett, an influential neuroscientist, ‘[t]he science of moral bioenhancement is in its infancy. Laboratory studies of human morality usually employ highly simplified models aimed at measuring just one facet of a cognitive process that is relevant for morality’. Crockett, M., ‘Moral Bioenhancement: A Neuroscientific Perspective’, Journal of Medical Ethics 40:6 (2014), 370371, 370CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

7 Gilligan, C., In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984)Google Scholar.

8 Plato, Protagoras, 320b–323a, in Jowett, B. (ed.), The Dialogues of Plato in Five Volumes, 3rd edn (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1892)Google Scholar.

9 Sevenhuijsen, S., ‘The Place of Care: The Relevance of the Ethics of Care for Social Policy’, in Sevenhuijsen, S. and Svab, A. (eds), Labyrinth of Care: The Relevance of the Ethics of Care Perspective for Social Policy (Ljubljana: Mirovni Institut, 2003), 1420Google Scholar.

10 Barnes, M., Care in Everyday Life: An Ethic of Care in Practice (Bristol: Policy Press, 2012)Google Scholar.

11 Held, V., The Ethics of Care: Personal, Political and Global (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006)Google Scholar.

12 Persson, I. and Savulescu, J., Unfit for the Future: The Need for Moral Enhancement, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 100134CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Heidegger, M., Being and Time, trans. by Stambaugh, J. (New York: SUNY Press, 2010), 174221Google Scholar.

14 Barnes, Care in Everyday Life.

15 S. Sevenhuijsen, ‘The Place of Care’.

16 Held, The Ethics of Care.

17 Manea, T., ‘Medical Bribery and the Ethics of Trust: The Romanian Case’, Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 40:1 (2015), 2643CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

18 Barnes, M., Care in Everyday Life, and Tronto, J. C., Caring Democracy: Markets, Equality, and Justice (New York and London: New York University Press, 2013)Google Scholar.

19 Ricard-Guay, Alexandra and Maroukis, Thanos, ‘Human Trafficking in Domestic Work in the EU: A Special Case or a Learning Ground for the Anti-Trafficking Field?’, Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies 15:2 (2017), 109121CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Temple, John, ‘Resident Duty Hours Around the Globe: Where Are We Now?’, BMC Medical Education 14:Suppl. 1 (2014)CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

21 Tronto, J. C., Moral Boundaries: A Political Argument for an Ethic of Care (London and New York: Routledge, 1993), 103Google Scholar; Fisher, B. and Tronto, J. C., ‘Toward a Feminist Theory of Caring’, in Abel, E. K. and Nelson, M. (eds), Circles of Care (Albany: SUNY Press, 1990) 3562Google Scholar.

22 Rachels, J., The Elements of Moral Philosophy (San Francisco: McGraw-Hill, 1999)Google Scholar.

23 Rorty, R., Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24 Rorty, Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity, 70–75.

25 Hauskeller, M., ‘The Art of Misunderstanding Critics: The Case of Persson and Savulescu's Defence of Moral Bioenhancement’, Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 24:1 (2015), 4857Google Scholar.

26 Donovan, J. and Adams, C. J., Beyond Animal Rights: A Feminist Caring Ethic for the Treatment of Animals (New York: Colombia University Press, 1996)Google Scholar.

27 Frank, A. W., At the Will of the Body: Reflections on Illness (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), 4250Google Scholar.

28 The term “principle” is not entirely adequate here, but it is present in the care literature. As I have mentioned before, the ethics of care – with its focus on context and relationships – differs from principlism. A better term would be “characteristics”.

29 Tronto, Moral Boundaries.

30 For the debate regarding the primacy of cognitive enhancement for enhancing morality, see: Harris, J., How to Be Good (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

31 Barnes, Care in Everyday Life, 20; Sevenhuijsen, ‘The Place of Care’, 20.

32 Tronto, Moral Boundaries, 128.

33 Barnes Care in Everyday Life; Held, The Ethics of Care.

34 In the USA the Climate Action Plan (2013) is set to be replaced by the America First Energy Plan: ‘President Trump is committed to eliminating harmful and unnecessary policies such as the Climate Action Plan and the Waters of the U.S. rule. Lifting these restrictions will greatly help American workers, increasing wages by more than $30 billion over the next 7 years’ (White House, 2017).

35 E. Addley, ‘Why Has the UK Ended its “Dubs” Child Refugee Scheme?’, The Guardian, 10th February 2017: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2017/feb/10/why-has-the-uk-ended-its-dubs-child-refugee-scheme.

36 Sevenhuijsen, ‘The Place of Care’, 21.

37 Harris, How to Be Good.

38 Tronto, Caring Democracy, 54–63.

39 Tronto, Moral Boundaries.

40 Popper, Karl R., The Open Society and Its Enemies (London: Routledge, 1945)Google Scholar.

41 Barnes, Care in Everyday Life; Tronto, Moral Boundaries, 136.

42 Sevenhuijsen, S., Citizenship and the Ethics of Care, trans. by Savage, L. (London and New York: Routledge, 1998)Google Scholar.

43 Wiseman, H., The Myth of Moral Brain: The Limits of Moral Enhancement (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2016), 8893Google Scholar.

44 As John Harris would presumably suggest.

45 M. Hauskeller, Better Humans?

46 Engster, D., The Heart of Justice: Care Ethics and Political Theory (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

47 For example, when someone respects the speed limit in an area because of speed cameras, although accelerating will not put anybody immediately in danger because the road at this exact time is empty.

48 Fineman, M.A., The Autonomy Myth: A Theory of Dependency (New York: The New Press, 2004)Google Scholar.

49 Crockett, ‘Moral Bioenhancement’, 370–371.

50 M. Hauskeller, ‘The Art of Misunderstanding Critics’, 48–50.

51 Agar, N., ‘Moral Bioenhancement is Dangerous’, Journal of Medical Ethics 41:4 (2013), 343354CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

52 Ideas already developed by other ethicists (e.g. R. Sparrow and M. Hauskeller), albeit from different perspectives.

53 Sparrow, R., ‘Better Living Through Chemistry? A Reply to Savulescu and Persson on “Moral Enhancement”’, Journal of Applied Philosophy 31:1 (2014), 2332CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

54 H. Wiseman, The Myth of the Moral Brain, 8–9.

55 Levin, I., The Stepford Wives (London: Constable and Robinson, 2011)Google Scholar.

56 Hauskeller, M., Sex and the Posthuman Condition (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 28, 40CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

57 Bartz, J. A., Zaki, J., Ochsner, K. N., Bolger, N., Kolevzon, A., Ludwig, N., Lydon, J. E., and Taylor, S. E., ‘Effects of Oxytocin on Recollections of Maternal Care and Closeness’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107:50 (2010), 2137121375CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

58 Zak, P. J., The Moral Molecule: The New Science of What Makes Us Good or Evil (London: Bantam Press 2012)Google Scholar; Zak, P. J. and Fakhar, A., ‘Neuroactive Hormones and Interpersonal Trust: International Evidence’, Economics and Human Biology 4:3 (2006), 412429CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

59 Martin, E., Bipolar Expeditions: Mania and Depression in American Culture (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2007)Google Scholar.

60 Elliott, C., Better Than Well: American Medicine Meets the American Dream (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2004)Google Scholar.

61 Moncrieff, J., The Myth of the Chemical Cure: A Critique of Psychiatric Drug Treatment (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008)Google Scholar; and Moncrieff, J., The Bitterest Pill (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

62 Vreko, S., ‘Folk Neurology and the Remaking of Identity’, Molecular Interventions 6:6 (2006), 300303CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

63 Hauskeller, M., ‘Is it Desirable to Be Able to Do the Undesirable? Moral Bioenhancement and the Little Alex Problem’, Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 26:3 (2017), 365375CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

64 Manea, T., ‘Care for Carers: Care Issues in the Context of Medical Migration’, in Barnes, Marian, Brannelly, Tula, Ward, Lizzie, and Ward, Nicki (eds), Ethics of Care: Critical International Perspectives (Bristol: Policy Press, 2015), 207219CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

65 Hauskeller, M., ‘Being Good Enough to Prevent the Worst’, Journal of Medical Ethics 41:4 (2014), 289290CrossRefGoogle Scholar.