Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-94fs2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T13:49:42.421Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

New Approaches to Old Problems: The Well-Being of the Population of Russia from 1821 to 1910 as Measured by Physical Stature

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 January 2017

Boris N. Mironov*
Affiliation:
Institute of Russian History (St. Petersburg branch), Russian Academy of Sciences

Extract

Scholars generally agree on the relationship between the physical stature, or height, of children and adults, and their quality of life, or their biological status, including diet, illnesses, intensity and conditions of work, availability of medical care, living conditions, psychological well-being, climate, water, air, and other environmental factors that have impinged on their lives prior to the point at which their height is measured. Genetic factors have an important effect on individual height, but genetic distinctions lose their significance when masses of individuals are measured and average heights are compared. The same effect holds at the level of entire populations: differences in height are determined, not by ethnic or racial attributes, but by living conditions.

Type
Discussion
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies. 1999

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. Tanner, J. M., Foetus into Man: Physical Growth from Conception to Maturity (Cambridge, Mass., 1978).Google Scholar

2. An as yet unexplained exception to this rule are populations in east Asia; see Eveleth, Phyllis B. and Tanner, James M., Worldwide Variation in Human Growth (Cambridge, Eng., 1976), 115, 222–40.Google Scholar

3. Grim, Gans, Osnovy konstitutsionnoi biologii i antropometrii (Moscow, 1967), 113 Google Scholar; Kharison, Dzhon et al., Biologiia cheloveka (Moscow, 1979), 386 Google Scholar; Tanner, Foetus into Man.

4. Karasevich, T. V., Sotsial'naia i biologicheskaia obuslovlennost’ izmenenii v fizicheskom razvitii cheloveka (Moscow, 1970), 116–24Google Scholar; Grim, Osnovy konstitutsionnoi biologii i antropometrii, 71–93.

5. Komlos, John, Nutrition and Economic Development in the Eighteenth-Century Habsburg Monarchy: An Anthropometric History (Princeton, 1989), 2628 Google Scholar; Richard H. Steckel, “New Perspectives on the Standard of Living,” Challenge, September-October 1995, 14.

6. Riley, James C., “Height, Nutrition, and Mortality Risk Reconsidered,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 24, no. 3 (Winter 1994): 465–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

7. Livi-Bacci, Massimo, Population and Nutrition: An Essay on European Demographic History, trans. Croft-Murray, Tania, with the assistance of Ipsen, Carl (Cambridge, Eng., 1987), 119–21.Google Scholar

8. If new research overturns this point of view and offers a new paradigm, then one would need to employ this new paradigm in subsequent analyses, and the results of earlier research would need to be reevaluated.

9. Cuff, Timothy, “Historical Anthropometrics—Theory, Methods, and State of the Field,” in Komlos, John, ed., The Biological Standard of Living on Three Continents: Further Explorations in Anthropometric History (Boulder, Colo., 1995), 118 Google Scholar; Komlos, Nutrition and Economic Development, 23–50.

10. This result comes from data on sixteen countries between die 1960s and the 1980s, with the help of correlation analysis between average height and the logarithm of national per capita income. See Steckel, Richard H., “Stature and the Standard of Living,” Journal of Economic Literature 33 (December 1995): 1913.Google Scholar

11. Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1988 (Washington, D.C., 1988), 807.

12. Nicholas, Stephen, “Anthropometric History and Economic History,” in Komlos, , ed., Biological Standard of Living on Three Continents, 191202.Google Scholar

13. See the brief but substantive reviews of the status of anthropometric history in Komlos, Nutrition and Economic Development, 23–54; Steckel, “Stature and the Standard of Living,” 1903–40; fuller treatments can be found in Tanner, J. M., A History of the Study of Human Growth (Cambridge, Eng., 1981)Google Scholar. See the bibliography in Komlos, ed., Biological Standard of Living on Three Continents, 203–20.

14. Bashkirov, P. N., Uchenie o fizicheskom razvitii cheloveka (Moscow, 1962), 48113 Google Scholar; Ivanovskii, A. A., Ob antropologicheskom sostave naseleniia Rossii (Moscow, 1904), 211–87.Google Scholar

15. Stoletie Voennogo ministerstva, 1802–1902, vol. 4, pt. 2, bk. 1, sec. 2, Glavnyi shtab. Istoricheskii ocherk. Komplektovanie voisk v tsarstvovanie imperatora Nikolaia I (St. Petersburg, 1907, 1914), 178–210; vol. 4, pt. 3, bk. 1, sec. 2, Komplektovanie voisk s 1855 po 1902 god (St. Petersburg, 1914), 136–75, 300.

16. The sources from which these were taken are located in: Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi istoricheskii arkhiv, f. 1292 (Upravlenie po delam o voinskoi povinnosti Ministerstva vnutrennykh del); f. 1286 (Departament politsii ispolnitel'noi); f. 1291 (Zemskii otdel Ministerstva vnutrennykh del); f. 1298 (Upravlenie glavnogo vrachebnogo inspektora Ministerstva vnutrennykh del). More detailed information is contained in Rossiiskii gosudarsfvennyi voenno-istoricheskii arkhiv and in oblast archives in the fondy of the military recruiting offices (voinskie prisutstviia).

17. Rediger, A., Komplektovanie i ustroistvo vooruzhennoi sily (St. Petersburg, 1892), 80108 Google Scholar; Obruchev, N. N., ed., Voenno-statisticheskii sbornik, pt. 4, Rossiia (St. Petersburg, 1871), sec. 2, pp. 215, 35Google Scholar; Otchet o narodnom zdravii za 1913god (St. Petersburg, 1914), 71.

18. Kovalev-Runskii, , “Otchet o vybore rekrut v gvardeiskii ekipazh v 1869 godu,” Meditsinskiepribavleniia k Morskomu sborniku, 1871, no. 12: 130–31Google Scholar; K. A. Genning, “Materialy k izucheniiu vliianiia voennoi sluzhby na fizicheskoe razvitie nizhnikh chinov” (Dissertatsiia na stepen’ doktora meditsiny, St. Petersburg, 1895), 1–11, 40–42.

19. For 1851–1855 there are also published data on the height of recruits for five provinces: Simbirsk (for 20, 006 recruits between 1851 and 1855); Vil'no (for 12, 841 recruits between 1851 and 1854); Chernigov (for 17, 336 recruits between 1851 and 1855 and for 1863); Bobrovskii, P., Grodnenskaia guberniia (St. Petersburg, 1863), chap. 2, p. 573 Google Scholar; Domontovich, M., Chernigovskaia guberniia (St. Petersburg, 1865), 139–41Google Scholar; Kirkor, A, “Etnograficheskii vzgliad na Vilenskuiu gubemiiu ,” Etnograficheskii sbornik, vol. 3 (1858): 123 Google Scholar; Lipinskii, , Simbirskaia guberniia (St. Petersburg, 1868), chap. 1, 316–18Google Scholar; Trubnikov, V V., “Rezul'taty narodnykh perepisei v Ardatovskom uezde Simbirskoi gubernii,” Sbornik statisticheskikh svedenii oRossii, bk. 3 (1858): 419–21.Google Scholar

20. [Kerber and Gol'der], Ofizicheskom issledovanii molodykh matrosov, proizvedennom v Kronshtadtskom morskomgospitale v 1867i 1868godakh (St. Petersburg, 1870), 32–155, 172–263; Meditsinskoepribavlenie k Morskomu sborniku: Ofizicheskom issledovanii rekrutov i molodykh matrosov, 1871, no. 12: 160–65, 178–81, 199, 207, 251–53, 261, 267.

21. Domontovich, Chernigovskaia guberniia, 139–41.

22. Vishnevskii, B. N., “K antropologii velikorusskogo naseleniia Permskoi gubernii,” Russkii antropologicheskii zhurnal, no. 1–2 (1916): 52 Google Scholar; Vishnevskii, B. N. and Gagaeva, M., “Rost prizyvnogo naseleniia Buinskogo uezda i ego sposobnost’ k neseniiu voennoi sluzhby,” Russkii antropologicheskii zhurnal, vol. 13, no. 3–4 (1924): 119–20Google Scholar; Otchet Obshchestva uzucheniia Smolenskoi gubernii za 1914 god (Smolensk, 1915), 17; Syrnev, A. A., Vseobshchaia voinskaiapovinnost’ v imperii zapervoe desiatiletie 1874–1883 gg., Statisticheskii vremennik Rossiiskoi imperii, series 3, no. 12 (St. Petersburg, 1886), xxxviixlix.Google Scholar

23. Sobranie zakonov i rasporiazhenii Raboche-krest'ianskogo pravitel1stva SSSR, 1925, no. 62, art. 463, pp. 850–82; 1928, no. 51, art. 51, pp. 970–1020; 1930, no. 40, art. 424, pp. 721–70; Sbornik zakonov SSSR i Ukazov Prezidiuma Verkhovnogo Soveta SSSR 1938g.-1961 g. (Moscow, 1961), 351–65; Sbornik zakonov SSSR i Ukazov Prezidiuma Verkhovnogo Soveta SSSR 1961–1967 (Moscow, 1968), 1: 625–50.

24. Statisticheskii spravochnik SSSRza 1928god (Moscow, 1929), 902–11.

25. Anuchin, D. N., O geograficheskom raspredelenii rosta muzhskogo naseleniia Rossii (po dannym o vseobshchei voinskoi povinnosti v imperii za 1874–1883 gg.) sravnitel'no s raspredeleniem rosta v drugikh stranakh (St. Petersburg, 1889), 7778, 80, 173–84.Google Scholar

26. Peskov, V. I., “K voprosu o vliianii fabrichnogo truda na zdorov'e rabochikh,” in Trudy VI s “ezda zemskikh vrachei Moskovskoi gubernii (Moscow, 1882), 198213 Google Scholar; Statisticheskii spravochnik SSSRza 1928 god, 910–11; Zenkevich, P. I. and Almazova, N. la., “Izmenenie razmerov tela vzroslogo muzhskogo naseleniia tsentral'noi chasti RSFSR za 100 let,” in Kurshakova, Iu. S. et al., Problemy razmernoi antropologicheskoi standartizatsii dlia konstruirovaniia odezhdy (Moscow, 1978), 7199, 155–224.Google Scholar

27. Grim, Osnovy konstitutsionnoi biologii i antropometrii, 113; Kharison, Biologiia cheloveka, 386.

28. Between the ages of 51 and 60, a man's height is less than when he was 25; therefore, the reconstructed height will be shorter than the real height; we label this “lower bound estimate. “

29. Erismann, F. G., “Untersuchungen über die körperliche Entwicklung der Arbeiterbevölkerung in Zentralrussland,” Arc/wn/ur soziale Gesetzgebungund Statistik (1888): 1: 98135, 429–84Google Scholar. The survey included 65, 041 males and 36, 200 females in seven provinces: Vladimir, Kaluga, Moscow, Riazan', Tula, Smolensk, and Tver'. The study continued for five years, between 1881 and 1885. In order to calculate the average height of individuals at different ages, the audior combined the results of changes during the five years as follows: the 25-year-old group included those born between 1856 and 1860, the 26-year-old group included tfiose born between 1855 and 1859, and so on. The figures that resulted from these approximations appear to be primitive five-year averages. Erisman was the only scholar in the nineteenth century to collect data on the height of women.

30. Zenkevich and Almazova, “Izmenenie razmerov tela vzroslogo muzhskogo naseleniia Tsentral'noi chasti RSFSR za 100 let,” 71–99; A. L. Purundzhan, “Geograficheskaia izmenchivost’ antropometricheskikh priznakov na territorii SSSR,” in Kurshakova et al., Problemy razmernoi antropologicheskoi standartizatsii dlia konstruirovaniia odezhdy, 108–16. Over 5, 000 peasants between the ages of 18 and 70, occupied in handicrafts in Nizhegorod and Kostroma provinces, were surveyed.

31. Syrnev, Vseobshchaia voinskaia povinnost’ v imperii za pervoe desiatiletie 1874–1883 gg., xv; Otchet o sostoianii narodnogo zdraviia i organizatsii vrachebnoi pomoshchi v Rossii za 1912 god (Petrograd, 1914), 323.

32. B. A. Nikitiuk, “Izmeneniia razmerov tela novorozhdennykh za poslednie 100 let,” Voprosy antropologii, 1972, no.42: 80.

33. Let me emphasize that the data on the height of recruits born between 1821 and 1855 and called to service before the introduction of universal military service in 1874 is not completely homogeneous, since the age requirements for military service changed. Therefore, the conclusions drawn from data for this period must be considered tentative.

34. Kapeler, Andreas, Rossiia—mnogonatsional'naia imperiia (Moscow, 1996), 97118, 249–66.Google Scholar

35. Struve, P. B., Krepostnoe khoziaistvo: Issledovaniia po ekonomicheskoi istorii Rossii XVIII iXIXvv. (Moscow, 1913), 154–59.Google Scholar

36. Vodarskii, la. E. and Kabuzan, V M., “Demograficheskie problemy istorii SSSR dosovetskogo perioda,” in Poliakov, Iu. A., ed., Istoricheskaia demografiia: Problemy, suzhdeniia, zadachi (Moscow, 1989), 110–19Google Scholar; Koval'chenko, I. D., Russkoekrepostnoekrest'ianstvo vpervoi polovine XIX v. (Moscow, 1967)Google Scholar; Koval'chenko, I. D. and Milov, L. V., “Ob intensivnosti obrochnoi ekspluatatsii krest'ian tsentral'noi Rossii v kontse XVIII-pervoi polovine XIX v.,” Istoriia SSSR 4 (1966): 5580.Google Scholar

37. Ryndziundskii, P. G., “Vymiralo li krepostnoe krest'ianstvo pered reformoi 1861 g.,” Voprosy istorii, 1967, no. 7: 5470 Google Scholar; Ryndziundskii, P. G., Utuenhdenie kapitalizma v Rossii 1850–1880gg. (Moscow, 1980), 7383.Google Scholar

38. Blum, Jerome, Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century (Princeton, 1961), 612–18Google Scholar; Emmons, Terence, The Russian Landed Gentry and the Peasant Emancipation of 1861 (Cambridge, Eng., 1968), 3436 Google Scholar; Field, Daniel, The End of Serfdom: Nobility and Bureaucracy in Russia, 1855–1861 (Cambridge, Mass., 1976), 96101 Google Scholar; Gerschenkron, Alexander, “Agrarian Policies and Industrialization: Russia 1861–1917,” in Postan, M. M. and Habakkuk, H.J., eds., Cambridge Economic History of Europe (Cambridge, Eng., 1965), vol. 6, pt. 2, pp. 706800 Google Scholar; L. Hoch, Steven and R. Augustine, Wilson, “The Tax Censuses and the Decline of the Serf Population in Imperial Russia, 1833–1858,” Slavic Review 38, no. 3 (September 1979): 403–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kolchin, Peter, Unfree Labor: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), 1731 Google Scholar; Rieber, Alfred J., The Politics of Autocracy: Letters of Alexander II to Prince A. I. Bariatinskii, 1857–1864 (The Hague, 1966), 1558.Google Scholar

39. Druzhinin, N. M., Russkaia derevnia na perelome 1861–1880 gg. (Moscow, 1978), 266–74Google Scholar; Fedosov, I. A., ed., Istoriia SSSR: XlX-nachala XX v., 2d ed. (textbook of the Ministry of Higher and Secondary Education for students specializing in history at higher educational institutions) (Moscow, 1987), 156–65.Google Scholar

40. See, for example, Khok, S. L., “Mal'tus: Rost naseleniia i uroven’ zhizni v Rossii, 1861–1914 gody,” Otechestvennaia istoriia, 1996, no. 2: 2854 Google Scholar; Hoch, Steven L., “On Good Numbers and Bad: Malfhus, Population Trends and Peasant Standard of Living in Late Imperial Russia,” Slavic Review 53, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 4175.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

41. Baker, Anita B., “Deterioration or Development? The Peasant Economy of Moscow Province prior to 1914,” Russian History 5, no. 1 (1978): 123 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gregory, Paul, “Grain Marketing and Peasant Consumption in Russia, 1885–1913,” Explorations in Economic History 17 (1980): 135–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gregory, Paul, Before Command: An Economic History of Russia from Emancipation to the First Five-Year Plan (Princeton, 1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Harrison, Mark, “The Peasantry and Industrialization,” in Davies, R. W., ed., From Tsarism to the New Economic Policy (Ithaca, 1980), 104–24Google Scholar; Plaggenborg, Stefan, “Who Paid for Industrialization of Tsarist Russia,” Revolutionary Russia 3, no. 2 (December 1990): 183210 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Simms, James Y Jr., “The Crisis of Russian Agriculture at the End of the Nineteenth Century: A Different View,” Slavic Review 36, no. 3 (September 1977): 377–98CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wilbur, Elvira M., “Was Russian Peasant Agriculture Really That Impoverished? New Evidence from a Case Study from the ‘Impoverished Center’ at the End of the Nineteenth Century,” Journal of Economic History 43, no. 1 (March 1983): 137–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Elvira M. Wilbur, “Peasant Poverty in Theory and Practice: A View from Russia's Impoverished Center,” and Stephen G. Wheatcroft, “Crises and the Condition of the Peasantry in Late Imperial Russia,” both in Esther Kingston-Mann and Timothy Mixter, eds., with the assistance of Burds, Jeffrey, Peasant Economy, Culture, and Politics of European Russia, 1800–1921 (Princeton, 1991), 101–27 and 128–74.Google Scholar

42. Stoletie Voennogo Ministerstva 1802–1902, vol. 4, pt. 3, bk. 1, sec. 2, pp. 20–21.

43. Mendel'son, L. A., Teoriia i istoriia ekonomicheskikh krizisov i tsiklov, 2d rev. ed. (Moscow, 1959), 2: 144–73.Google Scholar

44. Mironov, Boris N., “Diet and Health of the Russian Population from the Mid-Nineteenth to the Beginning of the Twentieth Century,” in Komlos, , ed., Biological Standard of Living on Three Continents, 5980.Google Scholar

45. Novosel'skii, S. A., Obzor glavneishikh dannykh po demografii i sanitarnoi statistike Rossii (Petrograd, 1916), 4042.Google Scholar

46. More detail on correlation analysis can be found in Koval'chenko, I. D., ed., Kolichestvennye melody v istoricheskikh issledovaniiakh (Moscow, 1984), 137–76Google Scholar; Mironov, B. N., Istoriia v tsifrakh: Matematika v istoricheskikh issledovaniiakh (Leningrad, 1991), 93100 Google Scholar; Blalock, Hubert M. Jr., Social Statistics (New York, 1971), 361–96Google Scholar; Dollar, Charles M. and Jensen, Richard J., Historian's Guide to Statistics: Quantitative Analysis and Historical Research (New York, 1971), 56105.Google Scholar

47. Livi-Bacci, Population and Nutrition, 35–39.

48. Mironov, “Diet and Health of the Russian Population. “

49. Kapeler, Rossiia—mnogonatsional'naia imperiia, 267.

50. Erismann, “Untersuchungen iiber die körperliche Entwicklung der Arbeiterbevölkerung in Zentralrussland,” 106–7. The correlation coefficient between changes of height for men and women is 0.538.

51. Bunak, V V., “Ob uvelichenii rosta i uskorenii polovogo sozrevaniia sovremennoi molodezhi v svete sovetskikh somatologicheskikh issledovanii,” Voprosy antropohgii, 1968, no. 28: 3840 Google Scholar; Deniker, I., Chelovecheskie rosy (St. Petersburg, 1902), 685–92Google Scholar; Steckel, “Stature and the Standard of Living,” 1919.