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Living on the Edge: The East European Roma in Postcommunist Politics and Societies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 January 2017

Zoltan D. Barany
Zoltan D. Barany*
Affiliation:
The Department of Government, University of Texas, Austin
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Extract

You watch your pocket. Gypsies. They don't work, only steal, and make children so the government will give them money every time

Nadine Gordimer

"I am no racist," he said. "But some Gypsies you would have to shoot."

Jozef Pacai, mayor of the Slovak village of Medzev

The east European communist regimes, in contrast to their frequently repeated claims, not only did not weed out nationalism in their domains but in some cases attempted to manipulate and exploit it for their own purposes. Nonetheless, since the collapse of communism the region has experienced a robust resurgence of at times violent ethnic conflicts and racism explained by the simultaneous occurrence of several factors accompanying the postcommunist transition process

Type
Research Article
Information
Slavic Review , Volume 53 , Issue 2 , Summer 1994 , pp. 321 - 344
Copyright
Copyright © Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies. 1994

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References

For insights, comments, and criticisms I am indebted to Gary P. Freeman, Sam C. Nolutshungu and colleagues in the SSRC Working Group on the Security of Marginal Populations, and to two unusually helpful reviewers.

1. See her splendid short story, “My Father Leaves Home,” The New Yorker (7 May 1990): 41.

2. Cited in The New York Times, 29 November 1993.

3. For a detailed exposition along these lines, see D. Barany, Zoltan, “Mass-Elite Relations and the Resurgence of Nationalism in Eastern Europe,” European Security 3, no. 2 (March 1994): 161–79.Google Scholar

4. Although “Gypsies,” notwithstanding its pejorative connotations, is still widely used even in academic parlance, I elected to use “Roma” (singular Rom, adjective Romani) which most Roma prefer. The actual size of eastern Europe's Romani population is disputed. First, censuses in most of the region are unreliable, as they have either grossly underestimated the Romani population or did not even allow “Rom” to be listed as an ethnic category. See, for instance, Liebich, Andre, “Minorities in Eastern Europe: Obstacles to Reliable Count,” RFE/RL Research Report 1, no. 20 (15 May 1992): 32–39 Google Scholar; and “The Ethnic Mosaic,” Geopolitique, no. 35 (August 1992): 37–40. Second, Roma frequently identify themselves with the dominant population group or as another minority in the place where they reside, either because they were truly integrated or due to their fear of persecution. At the latest Romanian census, for example, in counties like Harghita and Covasna about 70% of the Roma registered as Hungarians (Rompres [in English], Bucharest [22 May 1992]). During the December 1992 Bulgarian census many Roma declared themselves Turks (see Ilchev, Ivan and Perry, Duncan, “Bulgarian Ethnic Groups: Politics and Perceptions,” RFE/RL Research Report 2, no. 12 [19 March 1993]: 38 Google Scholar). Third, census officers were often unable to calculate the exact number of Roma because many of them had no fixed addresses. Romani activists tend to inflate their numbers and authorities are inclined to do exactly the opposite. According to an independent source (Der Spiegel [3 September 1990]), the Romani population of east European states is as follows: Albania 62, 000; Bulgaria 800, 000; former Czechoslovakia 800, 000; Hungary 600, 000; Poland 50, 000; Romania 2 million; and former Yugoslavia 800, 000. (Only in the case of Poland does this estimate seem unreasonably high. Both the Warsaw government and local officials put the number of the Roma there at 15, 000.)

5. For an excellent analysis of some stereotypes regarding the Roma, see Bell, Peter D., Peasants in Socialist Transition: Life in a Collectivized Hungarian Village (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984, 283–96Google Scholar.

6. Fraser, Angus, The Gypsies (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), 293 Google Scholar.

7. See, for instance, Csalog, Zsolt, “Jegyzetek a cigányság támogatásának kérdéséröl,” Szociálpolitikai Èrtesítö 2 (1984): 39 Google Scholar; Ficowski, Jerzy, The Gypsies in Poland: History and Customs (Warsaw: Interpress, 1985), 56 Google Scholar; Elena Marushiakova and Vesselin Popov, “Political Socialization of Gypsies in Bulgaria,” presented at the “Ethnic Issues in Bulgaria” conference, Munich, 13 September 1992.

8. See, for instance, Havas, Gábor, “A cigány közösségek történeti típusairól,” Kultúra és Közdöség 4 (1989): 3–21.Google Scholar

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10. Ficowski, The Gypsies in Poland, 49.

11. D. Barany, Zoltan, “Democratic Changes Bring Mixed Blessing for Gypsies,” RFE/RL Research Report 1, no. 20 (15 May 1992): 41 Google Scholar. Since 1989 some Roma have been “rediscovering” their linguistic heritage and many Romani leaders have become fluent in the language. A recent international conference set out to standardize the large variety of dialects to improve communications among the Roma throughout the world (see International Herald Tribune, 28 August 1990).

12. On this issue, see J. Huber, Konrad, “The Roma: Group Identity, Political Activism, and Policy Response in Post-1989 Europe,” Helsinki Monitor: Quarterly on Security and Cooperation in Europe 4, no. 3 (1993): 45.Google Scholar

13. Okeley, Judith, “Trading Stereotypes: The Case of English Gypsies,” in Sandra Wallmann, ed., Ethnicity at Work (London: Macmillan, 1979), 33 Google Scholar.

14. See Silverman, Carol, “Negotiating ‘Gypsiness': Strategy in Context,” Journal of American Folklore 101, no. 401 (July-September 1988): 261–75Google Scholar; and Stewart, Michael, “Gypsies, Work and Civil Society,” The Journal of Communist Studies 6, no. 2 (June 1990): 152–53.Google Scholar

15. Robert Gurr, Ted, Minorities at Risk: A Global View of Ethnopolitical Conflicts (Washington: US Institute of Peace Press, 1993), 40 Google Scholar.

16. For a well informed account of Romani traditions, see Weyrauch, Walter Otto and Bell, Maureen Anne, “Autonomous Lawmaking: The Case of the ‘Gypsies',” The Yale Law Journal 103, no. 2 (November 1993): 323–99.Google Scholar

17. O. McCagg, William, “Gypsy Policy in Socialist Hungary and Czechoslovakia, 1945–1989,” Nationalities Papers 19, no. 3 (1991): 330.Google Scholar

18. Stewart, “Gypsies, Work, and Civil Society,” 142.

19. For valuable studies on communist policies toward the Roma (aside from those already cited), see Crowe, David and Kolsti, John, eds ”The Gypsies of Eastern Europe (Armonk: M. E. Sharpe, 1991)Google Scholar; Diosi, Ágnes, Cigányút (Budapest: Szépirodalmi, 1988 Google Scholar; Ficowski, Jerzy, “Polish Gypsies Today,” Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society 29, no. 3 (1950): 92–102 Google Scholar; Kemény, István, “A magyarországi cigany lakosság,” Valóság 17, no. 1 (January 1974): 63–72 Google Scholar; J. Kostelancik, David, “The Gypsies of Czechoslovakia: Political and Ideological Considerations in the Development of Policy,” Studies in Comparative Communism 22, no. 4 (Winter 1989): 306–22Google Scholar; Marek-Kaminski, I., The State of Ambiguity: Studies of Gypsy Refugees (Gothenburg: Gothenburg University Press, 1988 Google Scholar; Mrozek, Halina and Egierska, Danuta, “Wędrówki i wykroczenia,” Zagadnienia Karno, no. 1 (1965): 1–16 Google Scholar; Sus, J., Cikánsk á otázka v CSSR (Praha: SNPL, 1961 Google Scholar; Seewann, Gerhard, “Zigeuner in Ungarn,” Südost-Europa 36, no. 1 (January 1987): 19–31 Google Scholar; Stewart, Michael, “Gypsies, the Work Ethic, and Hungarian Socialism,” in C. M. Hann, ed., Socialism: Ideals, Ideologies, and Local Practice (London: Routledge, 1993): 187–203 Google Scholar; Ulč, Otto, “Communist National Minority Policy: The Case of the Gypsies in Czechoslovakia,” Soviet Studies 20, no. 4 (April 1969): 421–43Google Scholar; and “Gypsies in Czechoslovakia,” Eastern European Politics and Societies 2, no. 2 (Spring 1988): 306–32; Zywert, Jósefat, “Poglady Cyganów na atrakcyjność zawadów,” Studia Socjologiczne, no. 1 (1971): 211–22.Google Scholar

20. For a representative sample of this literature, see Bartosz, Tadeusz, “Gdzie jesteś Cyganie? Cyganie w woj. kielckim,” Tygodnik Kulturalny, no. 25 (1966): 7 Google Scholar Drygafowa, Waleria, “Ostatni Mohikanie? Problem cygański,” Pomorze, no. 8 (1962): 1–3 Google Scholar Mirga, Andrzej, “Me som Rom, tumen sam gadźe,” Etnografia Polska 22, no. 2 (1978)Google Scholar Holomek, Tomas, “Problematika Cikánu ve svĕtle zákonné úpravy,” Demografie 9, no. 3 (1969): 210–213 Google Scholar Dezsery, László, “A felvásárolt falu,” Valóság 18, no. 6 (June 1975): 62–71 Google Scholar Sajo, Imre, “A ciganyok,” Èlet és Tudomány, no. 15 (1960): 471–74.Google Scholar

21. On this issue, see for instance, Zywert, Jósefat, “Problemy mlodziezy cygań skiej w szkole podstawowej,” Kwartalnik Pedagogiczny, no. 1 (1968): 103–9Google Scholar; Šaláta, Aladár, “Deti cigánských spoluobcanov,” Československá pediatric 13, no. 3 (1976): 267–71Google Scholar; Kötnyék, István, “A leghátrányosabb helyzetben,” Társadalmi Szemle 11 (1972): 69–74 Google Scholar; Enache, Smaranda, “Die Minderheit der Roma in Rumanien,” Glaube in der 2. Welt 20, no. 4 (1992): 22 Google Scholar; Grebenarov, Stojan, “Gypsy-Bashing,” The Insider (Sofia), no. 1 (1992): 20.Google Scholar

22. For an analysis along these lines, see Barany, “Democratic Changes Bring Mixed Blessing for Gypsies,” 40–48.

23. See, for instance, AFP (Bucharest), 30 October 1992; Ulc, Otto, “Integration of the Gypsies in Czechoslovakia,” Ethnic Groups 9, no. 2 (1991): 111.Google Scholar

24. See, for instance, Struggling for Ethnic Identity: Czechoslovakia's Endangered Gypsies (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1992), 53–74; Destroying Ethnic Identity: The Gypsies of Bulgaria (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1991), 20–29. For studies on the Roma's urban segregation in the Hungarian capital, see Ladányi, János, “A lakásrendszer változásai és a cigány népesség térbeni elhelyezkedésének átalakulása Budapesten,” Valoság 32, no. 8 (August 1989): 73–89 Google Scholar; and “Patterns of Residential Segregation and the Gypsy Minority in Budapest,” International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 17, no. 1 (March 1993): 30–41.

25. Nicolae Gheorghe cited in Der Spiegel (3 September 1990): 44. See also Kenedi, Janos, “Why is the Gypsy the Scapegoat and not the Jew?” East European Reporter 2, no. 1 (1986): 11–14.Google Scholar

26. See “Democracy, Economic Reform, and Western Assistance in Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland: A Comparative Public Opinion Survey,” prepared by Penn and Schoen Associates, Inc., Washington, DC, April 1991; and The Washington Post, 19 May 1991.

27. See the report “Prospects for the Roma in a New Europe” of the Helsinki Committee of the International Romani Union at the Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe: The Human Dimension, Moscow, September 1991; andjiri Pehe, “Law on Romanies Causes Uproar in Czech Republic,” RFE/RL Research Report 2, no. 7 (12 February 1993): 20.

28. See Köztársaság, no. 13 (10 July 1992); Arrw.ro Drom (September 1992): 24–25; and Magyar Nemzet, 21 June 1993.

29. For instance an article in April 1991 hailed Marshall Ion Antonescu, Romania's wartime dictator, for having deported the Gypsies and accused the Roma of being “enemies desiring Romania's destruction” (cited in Dan Ionescu, “Violence Against Gypsies Escalates,” Report on Eastern Europe [21 June 1991]: 26). See also Der Spiegel, 7 September 1992; and The Los Angeles Times, 12 October 1992.

30. See, for instance, Dan Pavel, “Wanderers,” The New Republic 4 March 1991: 13; and Cuvintul, 25–31 May 1993.

31. See NCA (Prague), 27 April 1993; Le Monde (Paris), 4 September 1992; Struggling for Ethnic Identity, 127–29. For the Bulgarian case, see Destroying Ethnic Identity, 45–46.

32. See The European, 26 March-1 April, 1992.

33. Gheorghe, Nicolae, “Roma-Gypsy Ethnicity in Eastern Europe,” Social Research 58, no. 4 (Winter 1991): 837.Google Scholar

34. See Enache, “Die Minderheit der Roma, 21–22; Die Presse, 7 July 1992; Prague Post, 27 October-2 November 1992; and Gyenei, Márta, “A létminimum alatt—jajhalom (I),” Statisztikai Szemle 71, no. 1 (January 1993): 16–32.Google Scholar

35. See Struggling for Ethnic Identity, 16; Hugh Poulton, “The Roma in Macedonia: A Balkan Success Story?” RFE/RL Research Report 2, no. 19 (7 May 1993), 44; Magyar Hirlap, 23 April 1992; and Pesti Hírlap, 29 March 1993.

36. I am indebted to Dan Ionescu for bringing this study to my attention. The team of researchers was associated with the Department of Sociology of the University of Bucharest and the Quality of Life Institute. The study, “The Population of the Roma: Social and Economic Situation and Coordinates for Support Programs,” was excerpted in several publications. It found the general situation of the Roma abominable and considered it by far the greatest social ailment in Romania. See Heti Világgazdaság, 2 January 1993; Rompres (Bucharest), 7 April 1993; Azi, 10 April 1993; andRomania Libera, 4 May 1993.

37. See, for instance, The European, 26 March-1 April 1992; Die Presse, 16 November 1992; Magyar Hírlap, 14 June 1993; Marushiakova and Popov, “Political Socialization of Gypsies,” 10.

38. There are a plethora of articles examining this phenomenon. For articles dealing with the whole region, see Der Spiegel, 3 September 1990; The Los Angeles Times, 20 December 1991; The Christian Science Monitor, 4 March 1993; The Mìami Herald, 4 May 1993. As for specific countries: Bulgaria: Duma, 18 February 1991; Ilchev and Perry, “Bulgarian Ethnic Groups,” 39; Grebenarov, “Gypsy-Bashing,” 22–23. Former Czechoslovakia: Reuter (Ostrava), 16 October 1990; Pehe, “Law on Romanies,” 19–20; Le Monde, 22 January 1993. Hungary: Pesti Hírlap, 14 April 1992; Magyar Nemzet, 21 June 1993; Népszabadság, 26 June 1993. Romania: Dan Stancu, “The Black Market in Romania,” Radio Free Europe Research, 8 August 1990; The New York Times, 27 November 1991 and 12 June 1992.

39. See Gallagher, Tom, “Vatra Romaneíscă and Resurgent Nationalism in Romania,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 15, no. 4 (October 1992): 570–99.Google Scholar

40. The New York Times, 2 November 1992. See also Kürti, László, “Rocking the State: Youth and Rock Music Culture in Hungary,” East European Politics and Societies 5, no. 3 (Fall 1991): 483–513.Google Scholar

41. There is plenty of solid evidence, see for instance, The Sunday Times, 12 April 1990; Reform, 14 September 1990; The Daily Telegraph, 26 October 1990; Ionescu, “Violence against Gypsies Escalates,” 23–26; Enache, “Die Minderheit der Roma,” 21–22; The New York Times, 12 June 1992; Der Spiegel, 7 September 1992; Die Tageszeitung, 29 August 1992; The European, 14–17 October 1993; The New York Times, 27 October 1993.

42. See Magyar Nemzet, 23 September 1993; Frankfurter Rundschau, 27 September 1993; and The New York Times, 27 October 1993.

43. See Ionescu, Dan, “Migration from Romania,” Report on Eastern Europe, 1 December 1989, 19 Google Scholar; Ataov, Türkkaya, “Bulgaria Represses All Minorities,” Macedonian Review 20, nos. 1–2 (1990): 90–96 Google Scholar; Los Angeles Times, 20 December 1991.

44. According to authorities in the Czech Republic, where sixteen Roma were murdered in 1990–1993, at least ten different skinhead factions carry out regular armed attacks on the Roma. The leader of the Republican Party, Miroslav Sladek, told supporters that the party would give an Alfa Romeo automobile to the local community that evicted the most Roma. See Jeremy Smith's report, Reuter (Prague), 9 February 1994.

45. The Globe and Mail (Toronto), 21 August 1992.

46. For a spirited debate between Romanologists on the issue of Romani nationalism, see Nationalities Papers 21, no. 2 (Fall 1993): 269–92.

47. For an excellent general treatment of this issue, see Hancock, Ian, “Gypsies: The Forming of Identities and Official Responses,” Immigrants and Minorities 2, no. 1 (March 1992): 3–20 Google Scholar. For some of these organizations and their activities, see for example, Frankfurter Rundschau, 23 November 1990; Köztársaság, 3 July 1992; Heti Világgazdaság, 2 January 1993; Süddeutsche Zeitung, 5 February 1993.

48. One important exception is Phralipe (“brotherhood” in Romani), an organization that originates in the successful campaign opposing the creation of a new ghetto in the Hungarian city of Miskolc. Phralipe is also unique to the extent that, for a short while at least, it managed to link Romani and non-Romani intellectuals with “ordinary” Roma. See Ladányi, János, “A miskolci gettóügy,” Valóság 34, no. 4 (April 1991): 45–54.Google Scholar

49. See Troxell, Luan, “The Bulgarian Gypsies: Numerically Strong, Politically Weak,” RFE/RL Research Report 1, no. 10 (6 March 1992): 58–61 Google Scholar.

50. See, for instance, Pesti Hirlap, 23 March 1992.

51. See The Times, 2 September 1992; The Guardian, 22 February 1993; and The Economist, 15–21 May 1993. For interesting accounts of the history of Romani kings in Poland, see Ficowski, The Gypsies in Poland, 15–22; and Marek-Kaminski, The State of Ambiguity.

52. In 1992, over 100 organizations divided Ft. 90 million (about $1 million) (Köztársaság, 3 July 1992)

53. Budapest Week, 9–15 September 1993.

54. Other ethnic minorities have been relatively successful in creating parties which enjoy their support come election time. In Romania, for instance, nearly all Hungarians vote for the single Hungarian party (see Katherine Verdery, “Nationalism and National Sentiment in Post-socialist Romania,” Slavic Review 52, no. 2 [Summer 1993]: 189). See also Glaube in der 2. Welt 20, no. 4 (1992): 27; and The New York Times, 18 October 1992.

55. Magyar Nemzet, 21 June 1993.

56. See D. Barany, Zoltan, “On the Road to Democracy: The Hungarian Elections of 1990,” Südost-Europa 39, no. 5 (May 1990): 318–30Google Scholar. Tamás Péli, representing the Hungarian Socialist Party, has taken a seat in the legislature since then.

57. Der Standard, 17 May 1990; Reuter (Ostrava), 16 October 1990.

58. Köztársaság, 3 July 1992; Der Standard, 12 August 1992; Pehe, “Law on Romanies,” 21.

59. See, for instance, Népszabadság, 8 April 1993.

60. It is worth noting that in Yugoslavia, alone in the socialist bloc, the Roma were recognized as an ethnic group. For a detailed examination of state policy towardthe Roma in the Balkans, see Poulton, Hugh, The Balkans: Minorities and States in Conflict (London: Minority Rights Publications, 1993, 2nd ed.)Google Scholar.

61. Rompres (Bucharest), 29 April 1993; and The Economist, 15–21 May 1993.

62. See D. Barany, Zoltan, “Hungary's Gypsies,” Report on Eastern Europe 1, no. 29 (20 July 1990): 28 Google Scholar; and Pehe, Jiri, “Racial Violence Increasing,” Report on Eastern Europe 1, no. 20 (18 May 1990): 17.Google Scholar

63. NCA/CTK (Košice), 3 February 1993.

64. A. Reisch, Alfred, “First Law on Minorities Drafted,” Report on Eastern Europe 2, no. 50 (13 December 1991): 16 Google Scholar. See the interview with Janos Wolfart in Amaro Drom (August 1992): 5–7; and (September 1992): 4–5.

65. See, for instance, Magyar Nemzet, 23 January 1991.

66. In Slovenia, for instance, the Roma were forcibly prevented from voting during the 1990 elections (see “Prospects for Roma in a New Europe,” a report presented by the Helsinki Committee of the International Romani Union at the September 1991 meeting of the CSCE in Moscow). In the Serbian city of Kuršumlija, for instance, the police dismissed a series of “mysterious” fatal accidents with the comment that it does not hurt if “even more [Gypsies] burn” (see “Stop Persecution of Gypsies!” Women and Revolution, no. 38 [Winter 1990–1991]: 3).

67. The Independent, 13 January 1993. President Havel, who has been very sympathetic toward the Roma, has acknowledged that promoting “a climate of tolerance, cooperation, and coexistence” might prove harder than adopting laws or decrees (see The New York Times, 10 December 1993).

68. NCA (Prague), 27 April 1993. See also, The Economist, 31 July 1993; and Tom Gross's report for the Tolerance Foundation (Prague), “The Czech Republic: Citizenship Research Project. “

69. Süddeutsche Zeitung, 12 July 1993. For a more comprehensive account, see Sharon Fisher, “Romanies in Slovakia,” RFE/RL Research Report 2, no. 42 (22 October 1993): 54–59.

70. See Poulton, “The Roma in Macedonia: A Balkan Success Story?” 42–45.

71. On these issues, see for instance, Carter, F. W., French, R. A. and Salt, J., “International Migration between East and West in Europe,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 16, no. 3 (July 1993): 467–91.Google Scholar

72. Magyar Nemzet, 3 February 1993; and AFP (Budapest), 3 February 1993. It appears that history reproduces itself in eastern Europe, for the Roma were slaves in the Balkans for centuries, and in Moldavia and Wallachia were only liberated in 1855–1856. For accounts of Romani slavery, see Hancock, Ian, The Pariah Syndrome: An Account of Gypsy Slavery and Persecution (Ann Arbor: Karoma, 1987 Google Scholar; and Beck, Sam, “The Origins of Gypsy Slavery in Romania,” Dialectal Anthropology 14 (1989): 53–61.Google Scholar

73. For general discussions of (West) German immigration policy, see Esser, Hartmut and Korte, Hermann, “Federal Republic of Germany,” in Tomas Hammar, ed., European Immigration Policy: A Comparative Study (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985, 165–206 Google Scholar; and Hailbronner, Kay, “Citizenship and Nationhood in Germany,” in Rogers Brubaker, William, ed., Immigration and the Politics of Citizenship in Europe and North America (Lanham: University Press of America, 1989, 67–80 Google Scholar. France is the second “favorite” destination of Romani immigrants. For an account of their fate there, see Liberation, 4 March 1993; and Inter-Press Service News, 8 March 1993.

74. The New York Times, 7 February 1993.

75. The Washington Post, 18 September 1992.

76. The New York Times, 26 September 1992; and The Los Angeles Times, 12 October 1992.

77. See the Detroit News, 12 November 1992 cited in Buhazi: Newsletter of the International Romani Union (Winter 1992): 6.

78. Heti Világgazdaság, 2 January 1993; and NCA (Strasbourg), 3 February 1993.

79. See Gazeta Wyborcza, 28 June 1991; and Zycie Warszawy, 2 August 1991. For an account of the Mlawa disturbances, see The New York Times, 25 July 1991.

80. The New York Times, 8 December 1992.

81. Ibid., 8 August 1993.

82. The Wall Street Journal, 25 February 1993.

83. The New York Times, 8 August 1993. See also, SüddeutscheZeitung, 2 September 1991; and Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 17 November 1991. For book-length analyses of the Roma's situation in (western) Germany, see Zuelch, Tilman, ed., In Auschwitz vergast, bis heute vergolgt: Zur Situation der Roma (Zigeuner) in Deutschland und Europa (Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1979 Google Scholar; Gronemeyer, Reimer, ed., (Giessen: Focus, 1983 Google Scholar; and Rinser, Luise, Wer wirft den Stein: Zigeuner sein in Deutschland (Stuttgart: Weitbrecht, 1985 Google Scholar.

84. See Simon, Mark, “Deja vu: The Rising Right in Germany,” The Jewish Monthly 106, no. 10 (June-July 1992): 7–13.Google Scholar

85. See Die Presse, ll January 1993; Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 16 January 1993; Le Monde, 22 January 1993; and SüddeutscheZeitung, 5 February 1993.

86. SüddeutscheZeitung, 13 January 1993; The Independent, 13 January 1993.

87. See, for instance, Die Presse, 1 September 1992.

88. SüddeutscheZeitung, 9 May 1993.

89. Quoted in The Chicago Tribune, 13 February 1993.

90. For a brief history of Romani international organizations, see Ian F. Hancock, “The East European Roots of Romani Nationalism,” Nationality Papers 19, no. 3 (Fall 1991): 261–65. For reports on the Fourth World Romani Congress, see The Chicago Tribune, 13 April 1990; and The Economist, 21 April 1990.

91. The London Times, 11 July 1991.

92. The Romani-Jewish Alliance Newsletter, April 1992, 3.

93. The Independent, 29 August 1992.

94. Helsinki Watch, a division of Human Rights Watch, has published several comprehensive reports (some of them quoted in this essay) examining the situation of the Roma in east European countries.

95. If insensitively and rigidly implemented, however, some of these policies actually might be used to further marginalize the Gypsies. See, for instance, Acton, Thomas, Gypsy Politics and Social Change: The Development of Ethnic Ideology and Pressure Politics among British Gypsies from Victorian Reformism to Romani Nationalism (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974)Google Scholar. I am indebted to David D. Laitin for bringing this point and the source to my attention.

96. See Zoltan, D. Barany, “ (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994 Google Scholar.

97. For an eloquent exposition of this subject, see Lijphart, Arend, “Consociational Democracy,” World Politics 21, no. 2 (January 1969): 207–25Google Scholar. See also Steiner, Jürg, “ (Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1974, 98–106 Google Scholar.