Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-13T06:44:30.928Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

HISTORY, POLITICS, AND CLAIMS OF MAN-MADE GLOBAL WARMING

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 June 2009

John David Lewis
Affiliation:
Political Science, Duke University

Abstract

Claims that a man-made global warming catastrophe is imminent have two major aspects: the scientific support offered for the claims, and the political proposals brought forth in response to the claims. The central questions are whether non-scientists should accept the claims themselves as true, and whether they should support the political proposals attached to them. Predictions of a coming disaster are shown to be a-historical in both the long term and the short term, to involve shifting predictions that are contrary to evidence, and to be opposed by many scientists. The political proposals to alleviate this alleged problem—especially plans by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency—are shown to offer no alternative to fossil fuels, and to portend a major economic decline and permanent losses of liberty. The anthropogenic global warming claims are largely motivated not by science, but by a desire for socialist intervention on a national and a global scale. Neither the claims to an impending climate catastrophe nor the political proposals attached to those claims should be accepted.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Social Philosophy and Policy Foundation 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Matthews, Robert, “Middle Ages Were Warmer Than Today, Say Scientists,” Daily Telegraph, June 4, 2003Google Scholar.

2 Spencer, Roy W., “Statement to the Committee on Oversight and Government Reform, United States House of Representatives,” March 19, 2007, http://oversight.house.gov/Documents/20070320152338-19776.pdfGoogle Scholar.

3 See Singer, S. Fred and Avery, Dennis T., Unstoppable Global Warming: Every 1,500 Years (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2007), xviixxiiGoogle Scholar, for a nontechnical summary of climate history.

4 Yapp, Crayton J. and Poths, Harald, “Ancient Atmospheric CO2 Pressures Inferred from Natural Goethites,” Nature 355 (1992): 342–44, http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v355/n6358/abs/355342a0.htmlCrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 Christopher R. Scotese, Paleomap Project, http://www.scotese.com/climate.htm.

6 Bergman, Noam M. et al. , “COPSE: A New Model of Biogeochemical Cycling over Phanerozoic Time,” American Journal of Science 304 (2004): 397437CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Berner, R. A. and Kothavala, Z., “GEOCARB III: A Revised Model of Atmospheric CO2 over Phanerozoic Time,” American Journal of Science 301 (2001): 182204CrossRefGoogle Scholar (Berner's graph of CO2 concentrations is reproduced in Singer, S. Fred, Hot Talk, Cold Science: Global Warming's Unfinished Debate [Oakland: The Independent Institute, 1999], 5Google Scholar). Rothman, Daniel H., “Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Levels for the Last 500 Million Years,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99, no. 7 (2001): 4167–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Royer, Dana L. et al. , “CO2 as a Primary Driver of Phanerozoic Climate,” GSA Today 14, no. 3 (2004): 4102.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Robert A. Rohde, Plot of Carbon Dioxide History of the Ancient Earth, http://www.nytimes.com/imagepages/2006/11/06/science/earth/20061107_CO2_GRAPHIC.html.

7 Patterson, Tim, “The Geologic Record and Climate Change,” presentation at the “Risk: Regulation and Reality” conference, Toronto, October 7, 2004, http://www.tcsdaily.com/article.aspx?id=010405MGoogle Scholar.

8 Vostok data, http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/temp/vostok/vostok.1999.temp.dat. For analysis, see Jouzel, Jean et al. , “Vostok Ice Core: A Continuous Isotope Temperature Record over the Last Climatic Cycle (160,000 Years),” Nature 329 (1987): 403–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jouzel, Jean et al. , “Extending the Vostok Ice-Core Record of Palaeoclimate to the Penultimate Glacial Period,” Nature 364 (1993): 407–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Jouzel, Jean et al. , “Climatic Interpretation of the Recently Extended Vostok Ice Records,” Climate Dynamics 12 (1996): 513–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Petit, Jean Robert et al. , “Climate and Atmospheric History of the Past 420,000 Years from the Vostok Ice Core, Antarctica,” Nature 399 (1999): 429–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Petit, Jean Robert et al. , “Historical Isotopic Temperature Record from the Vostok Ice Core,” in Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change (Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2000), http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/temp/vostok/jouz_tem.htmGoogle Scholar.

10 Fischer, Hubertus et al. , “Ice Core Records of Atmospheric CO2 Around the Last Three Glacial Terminations,” Science 283, no. 5408 (March 12, 1999): 1712–14CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

11 Soon, Willie, “Implications of the Secondary Role of Carbon Dioxide and Methane Forcing in Climate Change: Past, Present, and Future,” Physical Geography 28, no. 2 (2007): 97125CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Patterson, “Geological Record.”

13 Gore, Al, An Inconvenient Truth (New York: Rodale, 2006), 6667Google Scholar.

14 Harris, Tom, “Scientists Respond to Gore's Warnings of Climate Catastrophe,” Canada Free Press, June 12, 2006, http://www.canadafreepress.com/2006/harris061206.htmGoogle Scholar (includes the testimony of several other scientists).

15 Singer and Avery, Unstoppable Global Warming, 61–99, summarizes the evidence for these periods.

16 Spencer, “Statement to the Committee,” 5, testifies about the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age.

17 Fagan, Brian, The Little Ice Age: How Climate Made History, 1300–1850 (New York: Basic Books, 2000)Google Scholar.

18 Wheeler, Dennis, “Climatic Reconstructions for the Northeast Atlantic Region, a.d. 1685–1700: A New Source of Evidence from Naval Logbooks,” The Holocene 16, no. 1 (2006): 3949CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

19 For the account of continental soldier Elisha Bostwick, and the painting by Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze, see “Washington Crosses the Delaware, 1776,”EyeWitness to History, 2004, http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/washingtondelaware.htmGoogle Scholar. A captured Hessian soldier wrote: “After being made captive we were immediately transferred across the Delaware in boats, the river being full of ice, so that we had to resign ourselves to the possibility of death.” Washington Crossing Historical Park Web site, http://www.ushistory.org/washingtoncrossing/history/crossagain.htm.

20 See data compiled by the Climatic Research Unit, East Anglia University, and the UK Met Office Hadley Centre, updated by Phil Jones, http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/cru/info/warming/. Major source: Brohan, Philip et al. , “Uncertainty Estimates in Regional and Global Observed Temperature Changes: A New Dataset from 1850,” Journal of Geophysical Research 111 (2006), D24S08, doi:10.1029/2006JD008229CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

21 See http://www.surfacestations.org/; photos of surface stations are at http://gallery.surfacestations.org. N.B. the station at Marysville, California, next to a parking lot, cell tower, and air conditioning vents.

22 Goodridge, J. D., “Comments on Regional Simulations of Greenhouse Warming Including Natural Variability,” Bulletin of the American Meteorology Society 77, nos. 3-4 (1996), reproduced in Singer, Hot Talk, Cold Science, 13Google Scholar.

23 McKitrick, Ross R. and Michaels, Patrick J., “Quantifying the Influence of Anthropogenic Surface Processes and Inhomogeneities on Gridded Global Climate Data,” Journal of Geophysical Research 112 (2007), D24S09, doi:10.1029/2007JD008465CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

24 Panel on Climate Observing Systems Status, Climate Research Committee, the Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate, and the Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources, Adequacy of Climate Observing Systems (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999), x, 2, http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=6424Google Scholar.

25 Since Spencer and Christy left NASA, the satellite data have been harder to access on NASA's Web site, buried in computer models that support the AGW hypothesis. Christy is now director of the Earth System Science Center at the University of Alabama at Huntsville, where Spencer is principal research scientist.

26 From a temperature graph by John Christy, in Singer and Avery, Unstoppable Global Warming, xxii.

27 Patterson, “Geological Record.”

28 Gore, Inconvenient Truth, 63. To heighten the political effect, Gore has temperatures above the centerline in red, and those below in blue.

29 Mann, Michael E. et al. , “Global-Scale Temperature Patterns and Climate Forcing over the Past Six Centuries,” Nature 392 (1998): 779–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Mann, Michael E. et al. , “Northern Hemisphere Temperatures during the Past Millennium: Inferences, Uncertainties, and Limitations,” Geophysical Research Letters 26, no. 6 (1999): 759–62CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30 The graph is in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC Third Assessment Report, Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 29Google Scholar.

31 McIntyre, Stephen and McKitrick, Ross, “Corrections to the Mann et al., (1998) Proxy Data Base and Northern Hemisphere Average Temperature Series,” Energy and Environment 14, no. 6 (2003): 751–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar. McIntyre, Stephen and McKitrick, Ross, “Hockey Sticks, Principal Components, and Spurious Significance,” Geophysical Research Letters 32 (2005): L03710Google Scholar. McIntyre, Stephen and McKitrick, Ross, Reply to comment by Huybers on “Hockey Sticks, Principal Components, and Spurious Significance,” Geophysical Research Letters 32 (2005): L20713CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See Solomon, Lawrence, The Deniers (Minneapolis, MN: Richard Vigilante Books, 2008), 921Google Scholar, on the rise and fall of the “hockey stick” graph. For analysis of the IPCC's use of the graph, see Holland, David, “Bias and Concealment in the IPCC Process: The ‘Hockey-Stick’ Affair and Its Implications,” Energy and Environment 18, nos. 7 and 8 (2007): 951–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

32 Edward Wegman is Chairman of the National Academy of Sciences Committee on Applied and Theoretical Statistics, board member of the American Statistical Association, and Director of the Center for Computational Statistics at George Mason University.

33 Testimony of Edward Wegman, to the U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations, July 19, 2006, http://energycommerce.house.gov/reparchives/108/Hearings/07192006hearing1987/Wegman.pdf, pp. 6–9. Statement of Rep. Ed Whitfield, http://energycommerce.house.gov/reparchives/108/Hearings/07192006hearing1987/The_Honorable_Ed_Whitfield.htm. Whitfield notes that Mann declined to testify, due to a family vacation. For a report on the testimony, see Sever, Megan, “Hockey Stick Climate Study Faces Scrutiny,” Geotimes, September 2006Google Scholar.

34 Sever, “Hockey Stick Climate Study Faces Scrutiny.”

35 IPCC Third Assessment Report, 26.

36 Testimony of Thomas Crowley, Nicholas Professor of Earth Systems Science in the Nicholas School of the Environment at Duke University, to the U.S. House of Representatives, Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations, July 19, 2006, http://energycommerce.house.gov/reparchives/108/Hearings/07192006hearing1987/Crowley.pdf, p. 10.

37 Kauffman, Joel M., “Climate Change Reëxamined,” Journal of Scientific Exploration 21, no. 4 (2007): 723–49Google Scholar. See also Svensmark, Henrik and Calder, Nigel, The Chilling Stars: A New Theory of Climate Change, 2d ed. (Thirplow: Icon, 2008)Google Scholar. Svensmark is Director of the Centre for Sun-Climate Research at the Danish Space Research Institute. See also Shaviv, Nir and Veizer, Ján, “Celestial Driver of Phanerozoic Climate?GSA Today (July 2003): 4102.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Veizer is Emeritus Professor of Earth Sciences at the University of Ottawa. Shaviv is at the Racah Institute of Physics, Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

38 Svensmark, Henrik, “Influence of Cosmic Rays on Earth's Climate,” Physical Review Letters 81, no. 22 (1988)Google Scholar.

39 Winterhalter is quoted in the U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee, Minority Report, December 20, 2007, http://epw.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Minority.SenateReportGoogle Scholar. He is former Professor of Marine Geology at the University of Helsinki.

40 Wilson, Ian R. G. et al. , “Does a Spin-Orbit Coupling Between the Sun and the Jovian Planets Govern the Solar Cycle?Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia 25, no. 2 (June 26, 2008): 8593, http://www.publish.csiro.au/nid/138/paper/AS06018.htmCrossRefGoogle Scholar. The cooling should start in the late 2010s and continue for twenty to thirty more years, with the cooling predicted to be about 1.8 to 3.6°F.

41 Singer and Avery, Unstoppable Global Warming, 137–48, criticizes the models.

42 Gwin, Peter, “Lost Tribes of the Green Sahara,” National Geographic, September 2008Google Scholar. Sereno, Paul, “SuperCroc,” National Geographic, December 2001, republished September 2008Google Scholar. Grimal, Nicolas, A History of Ancient Egypt, trans. Shaw, Ian (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1994), 17Google Scholar.

43 Houghton, John, Global Warming: The Complete Briefing, 2d ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 12CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

44 Arrhenius, Svante, “On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground,” Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science 5, no. 41 (April 1896): 237–76CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

45 Vanderheiden, Steve, Atmospheric Justice: A Political Theory of Climate Change (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 3CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

46 The quote is from Arrhenius's 1906 paper, “Die Vermutliche Ursache der Klimaschwankungen,” excerpts reproduced and translated in Gerlich, Gerhard and Tscheuschner, Ralf D., “Falsification of the Atmospheric CO2 Greenhouse Effects within the Frame of Physics,” version 3.0 (September 9, 2007), http://front.math.ucdavis.edu/0707.1161Google Scholar.

47 Anderson, R. Warren and Gainor, Dan, “Fire and Ice: Journalists Have Warned of Climate Change for 100 Years, But Can't Decide Whether We Face an Ice Age or Warming,” Business and Media Institute, May 17, 2006, http://www.businessandmedia.org/specialreports/2006/fireandice/fireandice.aspGoogle Scholar.

48 Gunter, Lorne, “Forget Global Warming: Welcome to the New Ice Age,” National Post, February 25, 2008Google Scholar. Data are at the International Arctic Research Center Web site, http://www.ijis.iarc.uaf.edu/en/home/seaice_extent.htm. Dick Morgan, climatologist at the University of Exeter, explains an ebb and flow of ice thicknesses over thirty years, concluding that “there has been a steady increase to reach near normal conditions since 2001.” Quoted in Harris, “Scientists Respond.”

49 Goodstein, Eban, Fighting for Love in the Century of Extinctions: How Passion and Politics Can Stop Global Warming (Burlington: University of Vermont, 2007), 1, 5Google Scholar.

50 See Lomborg, Bjørn, Cool It: The Skeptical Environmentalist's Guide to Global Warming (New York: Vintage, 2008), 57Google Scholar, for a summary with sources. See also Stirling, Ian et al. , “Long-Term Trends in the Population Ecology of Polar Bears in Western Hudson Bay in Relation to Climatic Change,” Arctic 52 (1999): 294306CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

52 Gore, Inconvenient Truth, 193.

53 Katz, R. H.Journey Across the Nunataks of Central East Greenland, 1951,” Arctic 6, no. 1 (1953): 314, fig. 8, and p. 10CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

54 Rudolf, John Collins, “The Warming of Greenland,” New York Times, January 17, 2007Google Scholar. Discussed in World Climate Report, March 31, 2008, http://www.worldclimatereport.com/index.php/2008/03/31/warming-island-another-global-warming-myth-exposed/.

55 Hofer, Ernst, Arctic Riviera (New York: Rand McNally, 1957)Google Scholar.

56 Kerr, Richard A., “Seasonal-Climate Forecasts Improving Ever So Slowly,” Science 32, no. 5891 (August 15, 2008): 900901CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

57 The Secretary of State for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs in the United Kingdom wrote: “The debate about the science is over.” From a set of reports, “Taking Forward the UK Climate Change Bill: The Government Response to Pre-Legislative Scrutiny and Public Consultation,” presented to Parliament, October 2007, http://www.official-documents.gov.uk/document/cm72/7225/7225.pdf. The secretary notes that the urgency of the situation is shown by a recent gathering of world leaders on the subject.

58 U.S. Senate Environment and Public Works Committee, Minority Report, December 20, 2007, http://epw.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Minority.SenateReportGoogle Scholar.

59 For the quotes from Khandekar, Segalstad, and Gray, see ibid.

60 Michaels, Patrick J., Shattered Consensus: The True State of Global Warming (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005)Google Scholar. Michaels was an expert reviewer for the IPCC.

61 Solomon, The Deniers, 192–200 (Revelle) and 200–202 (Allegre).

63 The Conference of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto, December 1997. The Convention was adopted in New York on May 9, 1992. The text of the protocol is available at http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1997/global.warming/stories/treaty/.

64 The Oregon Petition, http://www.petitionproject.org/.

65 Bryson was profiled by Solomon, The Deniers, 201–5.

66 Cambridge Conference Network, October 1, 2007, http://www.staff.livjm.ac.uk/spsbpeis/CCNet-homepage.htmGoogle Scholar.

67 Solomon, The Deniers, 52–53.

68 Lindzen, Richard, “Climate of Fear,” Wall Street Journal, Opinion Journal Archives, April 12, 2006, http://opinionjournal.com/extra/?id=110008220Google Scholar.

69 Svensmark and Calder, Chilling Stars, 75.

70 Michaels, Patrick J. and Balling, Robert C., The Satanic Gases: Clearing the Air about Global Warming (Washington, DC: Cato Institute, 2000), 192Google Scholar.

71 Smith, Arthur, “Al Gore in NYC,” Alternative Energy Network, May 26, 2006, http://www.altenergyaction.org/mambo/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=109&Itemid=27Google Scholar. On the Heinz Award, see http://www.heinzawards.net/.

72 Spencer, “Statement to the Committee,” 2.

73 Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2009 Statistical Abstract,http://www.census.gov/prod/2008pubs/09statab/pop.pdf, page 7Google Scholar; Historical Data Series: Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Fuel Type, 1949–2006 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, 2006), http://www.eia.doe.gov/environment.html.

74 Comments of Senator Harry Reid, Fox Business News, June 30, 2008.

75 Hayden, Howard, The Solar Fraud: Why Solar Energy Won't Run the World (Pueblo, CO: Vales Lake Publishing, 2004)Google Scholar, details the energy figures and shows why solar is not cost effective even on the level of individual homes.

76 Federal Register 69, no. 221 (November 17, 2004), http://www.epa.gov/EPA-IMPACT/2004/November/Day-17/i25460.htm.

77 Andy Opsahl, Government Technology Magazine, interview with Rachel Huang, Sacramento Municipal Utilities District (undated), video, http://video.govtech.com/?fr_story=9c90f41fc492e019b4b3e231d6b5d41e161837bc&rf=sitemap.

78 Schultz, Max, “California's Energy Colonialism,” Wall Street Journal, May 3, 2008, http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/_wsj_californias_energy_colonialism.htmGoogle Scholar.

79 Altair Nanotechnologies has tested a battery that delivers 1 megawatt for fifteen minutes; it is the size of a tractor trailer. See “Summary of KEMA Validation Report,” June 27, 2008, http://www.b2i.cc/Document/546/KEMA_Carina_validation_report_public_final.pdf.

80 The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (H.R. 6), signed December 19, 2007. This amends the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (H.R. 6).

81 Renewable Fuels Association Web site, http://www.ethanolrfa.org/resource/standard.

82 GovernorPerry, Rickof Texas, “Texas Is Fed Up with Corn Ethanol,” Wall Street Journal, op-ed, August 12, 2008Google Scholar. With some 25 percent of U.S. corn production dedicated to subsidized ethanol production, animal feed prices have been distorted both by the mandates to produce ethanol and by the government subsidies.

83 Grant, Andrea, “Renewable Fuel Standard Challenges Faced by Terminals,” Independent Fuel Terminal Operators, May 13, 2008, http://www.sae.org/events/gim/presentations/2008grant.pdfGoogle Scholar.

84 Hahn, Robert and Cecot, Caroline, “The Benefits and Costs of Ethanol,” AEI-Brookings Joint Center for Regulatory Studies, Working Paper 07-17, November 2007, p. 2, http://s08.middlebury.edu/ECON0265A/New%20articles%20-%202008/Cost%20-%20benefits%20of%20ethanol.pdfGoogle Scholar.

85 Searchinger, Timothy et al. , “Use of U.S. Croplands for Biofuels Increases Greenhouse Gases Through Emissions from Land-Use Change,” Science 319 (2008): 1238–40CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

86 Federal Register 73, no. 157 (August 13, 2008), http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2008/pdf/E8-18738.pdf. The EPA based its decision on an academic economic model, by which EPA determined that “the RFS [Renewable Fuels Standard] would have no impact on ethanol production volumes in the relevant time frame.”

87 “Opposing Cape Wind,” http://www.tedkennedy.com/mass/861/opposing-cape-wind; Environmental Economics, January 2006, http://www.env-econ.net/2006/01/i_have_an_idea_.html.

88 IndyMedia Climate, April 13, 2006, http://www.climateimc.org/?q=node/400.

89 Brown, Angela K., “Residents Band Together to Fight Wind Turbines,” Associated Press, August 16, 2008, http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/ap/business/5947638.htmlGoogle Scholar; “Environmentalists Oppose Solar Power Plans,” Columbia Daily Tribune, June 16, 2008, http://www.columbiatribune.com/2008/Jun/20080616Busi001.asp.

90 “Fossil Fool,”Investor's Business Daily, July 01, 2008, http://www.ibdeditorials.com/IBDArticles.aspx?id=299804021452063Google Scholar.

91 “No Sun Intended,”Investor's Business Daily, June 30, 2008, http://www.ibdeditorials.com/IBDArticles.aspx?id=299717243722155Google Scholar.

92 Governor Schwarzenegger's Keynote Address at Yale Climate Change Conference, April 18, 2008, http://gov.ca.gov/speech/9360.

93 Revkin, Andrew C., “‘Averting Our Eyes’: James Hansen's New Call for Climate Action,” New York Times, November 28, 2007, http://dotearth.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/11/28/averting-our-eyes-james-hansens-new-call-for-climate-action/Google Scholar.

94 Environmental Protection Agency, “Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking” (hereafter ANPR), 40 CFR Chapter I [EPA-HQ-OAR-2008-0318; FRL-8694-2] RIN 2060-AP12, “Regulating Greenhouse Gas Emissions under the Clean Air Act.” Signed by the EPA Administrator July 11, 2008, http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/downloads/ANPRPreamble.pdfGoogle Scholar.

95 Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency, 549 U.S. 497 (2007). Cited in ANPR, 74.

96 Executive Order 13432 of May 14, 2007, “Cooperation Among Agencies in Protecting the Environment with Respect to Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Motor Vehicles, Nonroad Vehicles, and Nonroad Engines,” Federal Register 72, no. 94 (May 16, 2007), http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2007/pdf/07-2462.pdf.

97 The Lieberman-Warner Climate Security Act of 2007 and 2008, http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=s110-2191.

98 “Getting the Most Greenhouse Gas Reductions for Our Money,” White Paper, House Committee on Energy and Commerce, U.S. House of Representatives, May 27, 2008, http://energycommerce.house.gov/Climate_Change/.

99 Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency, 549 U.S. 497 (2007).

100 ANPR, 29–30.

101 ANPR, 2.

102 The EPA's description of these gases, with heavy reliance on the UN IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, is in the ANPR at 91–100. The “unequivocal” statement is noted in the July 10, 2008, letter from the Council of Economic Advisers and Office of Science and Technology Policy to Susan Dudley, inserted following page 71 of the ANPR. See also ANPR, 74, 187.

103 ANPR, DOE comments, 23.

104 ANPR, 554. Velders, Guus J. M. et al. , “The Importance of the Montreal Protocol in Protecting Climate,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104, no. 12 (2007): 4814–19CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

105 Letter of January 23, 2008, to EPA Administrator Stephen Johnson, http://www.illinoisattorneygeneral.gov/pressroom/2008_01/johnsonletter.pdf.

106 ANPR, 5.

107 ANPR, 59–60, 232f.

108 ANPR, 66–67; emphasis added.

109 ANPR, 37, 39–40, 51, figures 28 and 29: http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/s2191/economic.html.

110 ANPR, 54. Data from the Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, August 17, 2007, http://cdiac.ornl.gov/ftp/trends/emissions/usa.dat.

111 U.S. Government Spending Web site, http://www.usgovernmentspending.com/year1950_0.html.

112 ANPR, Department of Transportation comments, 8–9.

114 Yamin, Farhana, ed., Climate Change and Carbon Markets, reprint ed. (London: Earthscan, 2006), 109Google Scholar.

115 As “deregulation” is blamed for electric problems in Texas, while the “market” is controlled by a government-created 501(c)(4) corporation with a monopoly on distribution. See Smith, Rebecca, “Deregulation Jolts Texas Electric Bills,” Wall Street Journal, July 17, 2008, A1, A16Google Scholar.

116 Lawson, Nigel, An Appeal to Reason: A Cool Look at Global Warming (New York: Overlook Duckworth, 2008), 7378, esp. 78Google Scholar.

117 The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was brought forward at the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, the so-called Earth Summit.

118 Dyer, Geoff and Harvey, Fiona, “China Toughens Stance on Role of Rich Nations in Climate Effort,” Financial Times, October 29, 2008, http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/6e0ea162-a55a-11dd-b4f5-000077b07658.htmlGoogle Scholar.

119 Orlowski, Andrew, “Snow Blankets London for Global Warming Debate: How Parliament Passed the Climate Bill,” The Register, October 29, 2008, http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/10/29/commons_climate_change_billGoogle Scholar.

120 As Europeans may realize, following Russia's invasion of Georgia in August 2008 and the threat to pipelines.

121 “Eradication of Malaria in the United States (1947–1951),” Web site of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, http://www.cdc.gov/malaria/history/eradication_us.htm. See also Lomborg, Cool It, 94–97.

123 See the EPA Press Release announcing the ban, http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/ddt/01.htm. Ruckleshaus, after leaving the EPA, became a fundraiser for the Environmental Defense Fund, which petitioned to ban DDT. On Edwards, see Milloy, Steven, “Scientist Who Warned against DDT Ban Dies,” Fox News, August 6, 2004, http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,128165,00.htmlGoogle Scholar.

124 The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development exemplifies this merger. Consider Principle no. 5 put forward by the conference: “All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable development, in order to decrease the disparities in standards of living and better meet the needs of the majority of the people of the world” (http://www.un.org/documents/ga/conf151/aconf15126-1annex1.htm).

125 See, e.g., McKenzie-Mohr, Doug and Smith, W., Fostering Sustainable Behavior: An Introduction to Community-Based Social Marketing (Gabriola Island: New Society, 1999)Google Scholar. The book was published with a Canadian government grant.

126 Smolski, Kate, “Greenpeace Statement on EPA ANPR,” U.S. Climate Action Network, July 11, 2008, http://usclimatenetwork.org/federal/bush-admin/epa-regulations/reactions-to-epa-anpr/greenpeace-statement-on-epa-anprGoogle Scholar.

127 A priest is offering “green confessionals,” where the faithful can confess environmental sins (e.g., failure to recycle). Gledhill, Ruth, “Priest Offers Festival-goers the Chance to Confess Their Green Sins,” Times Online, August 30, 2007Google Scholar.

128 Ehrlich, Paul, “An Ecologist's Perspective on Nuclear Power,” Federation of American Scientists Public Issue Report, May/June 1978Google Scholar.

129 Lovins, Amory, The Mother Earth News, November/December 1977, 22Google Scholar.

130 “GMOs: The Case for a Moratorium,” Friends of the Earth, June, 2001, http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/reports/gmo_case_for_moratorium.html. Discussed in Paarlberg, Robert, Starved for Science: How Biotechnology Is Being Kept Out of Africa (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 175CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

131 Aaron Wildavsky, quoted in Zelnick, Bob, Gore: A Political Life (Washington, DC: Regnery, 1999), 208Google Scholar.

132 Watson, Paul, “The Beginning of the End for Life as We Know It on Planet Earth?” The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, May 4, 2007, http://www.seashepherd.org:80/editorials/editorial_070504_1.htmlGoogle Scholar.

133 Reported by Deutsche Presse-Agentur (DPA), August 1988, http://www.themidnightsun.org/?p=1392Google Scholar.

134 Graber, David, Review of Bill McKibben, The End of Nature, in the Los Angeles Times, Book Review Section (October 29, 1989): 9Google Scholar.

135 Maurice Strong, quoted in Locke, Robert, “Ecoterrorism and Us,” FrontPage Magazine, November 15, 2001, http://www.sepp.org/Archive/NewSEPP/Ecoterrorism.htmGoogle Scholar.

136 Vanderheiden, Atmospheric Justice, xiii.