Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T13:34:38.591Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Using Perceptual Control Theory and the Method of Levels to work with people who experience psychosis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 October 2009

Sara J. Tai*
Affiliation:
School of Psychological Sciences, University of Manchester, UK
*
*Author for correspondence: Dr S. J. Tai, School of Psychological Sciences, University of Manchester, Coupland Building, University of Manchester M13 9PL, UK. (email: sara.tai@manchester.ac.uk)

Abstract

This paper provides an overview of perceptual control theory (PCT) in relation to understanding severe and enduring mental health problems. The core principles of control and conflict are reviewed in relation to understanding the experiences associated with psychotic disorders. The therapeutic application of PCT known as the Method of Levels (MOL) is described and an overview of how this might be a useful approach to use with people experiencing psychosis is provided. The benefits and difficulties of using MOL to work with people experiencing psychosis are described including case illustrations of preliminary work based on the application of MOL in clinical practice. It is concluded that PCT is a useful framework for understanding severe and enduring mental health problems and there are potential benefits in using MOL as a therapeutic intervention. Further research examining the effectiveness and feasibility of MOL as a specific treatment for psychosis is recommended.

Type
Practice article
Copyright
Copyright © British Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Recommended follow-up reading

Carey, TA (2006). The Method of Levels: How to Do Psychotherapy Without Getting in the Way. Hayward, CA: Living Control Systems Publishing.Google Scholar
Mansell, W (2005). Control theory and psychopathology: an integrative approach. Psychology and Psychotherapy 78, 141178.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gumley, A, Schwannauer, M (2006). A Cognitive Interpersonal Approach to Recovery and Relapse Prevention. Chichester: John Wiley and Son.Google Scholar

References

Averill, JR (1973). Personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationship to stress. Psychological Bulletin 80, 286303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ballon, JS, Kaur, T, Marks, II, Cadenhead, KS (2007). Social functioning in young people at risk for schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research 151, 2935.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, AT, Rector, NA, Stolar, NM, Grant, PM (2009). Schizophrenia: Cognitive Theory, Research, and Therapy. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bentall, RP (ed.) (1990). Reconstructing Schizophrenia. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bentall, RP (2009). Doctoring the Mind. London: Allen Lane.Google Scholar
Bentall, RP, Fernyhough, C (2008). Social predictors of psychotic experiences: specificity and psychological mechanisms. Schizophrenia Bulletin 34, 10121020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berry, K, Barrowclough, C, Wearden, A (2008). Attachment theory: a framework for understanding symptoms and interpersonal relationships in psychosis. Behaviour Research and Therapy 46, 12751282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bijl, RV, Ravelli, A, van Zessen, G (1998). Prevalence of psychiatric disorder in the general population. Social Psychiatry Psychiatric Epidemiology 33, 587596.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birchwood, M (2003). Pathways to emotional dysfunction in first-episode psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry 182, 373375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birchwood, M, Mason, R, MacMillan, F, Healy, J (1993). Depression, demoralization and control over psychotic illness: a comparison of depressed and non-depressed patients with a chronic psychosis. Psychological Medicine 23, 387395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birchwood, M, Meaden, A, Trower, P, Gilbert, P, Plaistow, J(2000). The power and omnipotence of voices: subordination and entrapment by voices and significant others. Psychological Medicine 30, 337344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyle, M (1990). Schizophrenia: A Scientific Delusion. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Campbell, ML, Morrison, AP (2007). The relationship between bullying, psychotic-like experiences and appraisals in 14–16-year olds. Behaviour Research and Therapy 45, 1579–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carey, T (2005). Method of Levels: How to Do Psychotherapy without Getting in the Way. Hayward, CA: Living Control Systems Publishing.Google Scholar
Carey, T (2008 a). Hold that Thought! A Short Introduction to the Method of Levels. Chapel Hill, NC: Newview Publications.Google Scholar
Carey, T (2008 b). Perceptual Control Theory and the Method of Levels: further contributions to a transdiagnostic perspective. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy 1, 237255.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carey, T, Carey, M, Stalker, K, Mullan, RJ, Murray, LK, Spratt, MB (2007). Psychological change from the inside looking out: a qualitative investigation. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research 7, 178187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carey, TA (2008 c). Conflict, as the Achilles heel of perceptual control, offers a unifying approach to the formulation of psychological problems. Counselling Psychology Review 23, 516.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carey, TA, Carey, M, Mullan, RJ, Spratt, CG, Spratt, MB(2009). Assessing the statistical and personal significance of the method of levels. Behaviour and Cognitive Psychotherapy 37, 311324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carey, TA, Mullan, RJ (2007). Patients taking the lead: a naturalistic investigation of a patient led approach to treatment in primary care. Counselling Psychology Quarterly 20, 114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carey, TA, Mullan, RJ (2008). Evaluating the Method of Levels. Counselling Psychology Quarterly 21, 110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chadwick, P (2006). Person Based Cognitive Therapy for Distressing Psychosis. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Drury, V, Birchwood, M, Cochrane, R (2000). Cognitive therapy and recovery from acute psychosis: a controlled trial: 3. Five-year follow-up. British Journal of Psychiatry 177, 814.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fiske, ST, Taylor, SE (1991). Social Cognition. McGraw-Hill: New York.Google Scholar
Freeman, D, Pugh, K, Antley, A, Slater, M, Bebbington, P, Gittins, M, Dunn, G, Kuipers, E, Fowler, D, Garety, P (2008). Virtual reality study of paranoid thinking in the general population. British Journal of Psychiatry 192, 258263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freeman, D, Pugh, K, Vorontsova, N, Southgate, L (2009). Insomnia and paranoia. Schizophrenia Research 108, 280284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Freud, S (1955). The Interpretation of Dreams, IV and V (1900). London: Hogarth Press.Google Scholar
Gilbert, P, Birchwood, M, Gilbert, J, Trower, P, Hay, J, Murray, B, Meaden, A, Olsen, K, Miles, JN (2001). An exploration of evolved mental mechanisms for dominant and subordinate behaviour in relation to auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia and critical thoughts in depression. Psychological Medicine 31, 1117–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gumley, A, Schwannauer, M (2006). A Cognitive Interpersonal Approach to Recovery and Relapse Prevention. Chichester: John Wiley and Son.Google Scholar
Gumley, A, White, CA, Power, K (1999). An interacting cognitive subsystems model of relapse and the course of psychosis. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy 6, 261278.3.0.CO;2-C>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gumley, AI, Karatzias, A, Power, KG, Reilly, J, McNay, L, O'Grady, M (2006). Early intervention for relapse in schizophrenia: Impact of cognitive behavioural therapy on negative beliefs about psychosis and self-esteem. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 45, 247260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harvey, A, Watkins, ER, Mansell, W, Shafran, R (2004). Cognitive Behavioural Processes across Psychological Disorders: A Transdiagnostic Approach to Research and Treatment. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heinrichs, RW (2001). In Search of Madness: Schizophrenia and Neuroscience. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johns, LC, van Os, J (2001). The continuity of psychotic experiences in the general population. Clinical Psychology Review 21, 11251141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Killaspy, H, Banerjee, S, King, M, Lloyd, M (2000). Prospective controlled study of psychiatric out-patient non-attendance: characteristics and outcome. British Journal of Psychiatry 176, 160165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kingdon, DG, Turkington, D (2005). Cognitive Therapy of Schizophrenia. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Lecomte, T, Spidel, A, Leclerc, C, MacEwan, GW, Greaves, C, Bentall, RP (2008). Predictors and profiles of treatment non-adherence and engagement in services problems in early psychosis. Schizophrenia Research 102, 295302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacBeth, A, Schwannauer, M, Gumley, A (2008). The association between attachment style, social mentalities, and paranoid ideation: an analogue study. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice 81, 7994.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, NE (1944). Experimental studies of conflict. In: Personality and the behavior disorders (ed. Hunt, J.), pp. 431465. New York: Ronald.Google Scholar
Morrison, AP (2001). The interpretation of intrusions in psychosis: An integrative cognitive approach to hallucinations and delusions. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 29, 257276.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morrison, AP, Renton, J, Dunn, H, Williams, S, Bentall, RP(2003). Cognitive Therapy for Psychosis: A Formulation-Based Approach. Hove: Brunner-Routledge.Google Scholar
Morrison, AP, Wells, A (2000). Thought control strategies in schizophrenia: a comparison with non-patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy 38, 12051209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrison, AP, Wells, A (2003). Metacognition across disorders: a comparison of patients with hallucinations, delusions, and panic disorder with non-patients. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41, 251256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morrison, AP, Wells, A, Nothard, S (2000). Cognitive factors in predisposition to auditory and visual hallucinations. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 39, 6778.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mueser, KT, Rosenberg, SD, Goodman, LA, Trumbetta, SL(2002). Trauma, PTSD, and the course of severe mental illness: an interactive model. Schizophrenia Research 53, 123143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
NICE (2009). Core interventions in the treatment and management of schizophrenia in primary and secondary care (update). London: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence.Google Scholar
Pinkham, AE, Penn, DL, Perkins, DO, Graham, KA, Siegel, M(2007). Emotion perception and social skill over the course of psychosis: a comparison of individuals ‘at-risk’ for psychosis and individuals with early and chronic schizophrenia spectrum illness. Cognition and Neuropsychiatry 12, 198212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pitt, L, Kilbride, M, Nothard, S, Welford, M, Morrison, AP(2007). Researching recovery from psychosis: a user-led project Psychiatric Bulletin 31, 5560.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powers, WT (1973). Behavior: The Control of Perception. New York: Hawthorne.Google Scholar
Powers, WT (1990). Control theory: a model of organisms. System Dynamics Review 6, 120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powers, WT (1998). Making Sense of Behavior. New Canaan, CT: Benchmark.Google Scholar
Powers, WT (2005). Behavior: The Control of Perception. New Canaan, CT: Benchmark.Google Scholar
Powers, WT (2008). Living Control Systems III: The Fact of Control. Escondido, CA: Benchmark Publications:Google Scholar
Powers, WT, Clark, RK, McFarland, RL (1960). A general feedback theory of human behavior. Part II. Perceptual and Motor Skills 11, 309323.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Read, A (1997). Child abuse and psychosis: a literature review and implications for professional practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 28, 448456.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Read, J, van Os, J, Morrison, AP, Ross, CA (2005). Childhood trauma, psychosis and schizophrenia: a literature review and clinical implications. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 112, 330350.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Romme, M (1998). Listening to the voice hearers. Journal of Psychosocial Nursing and Mental Health Services 36, 404–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romme, M, Escher, A (1996). Empowering people who hear voices. In: Cognitive Behavioural Interventions with Psychotic Disorders (ed. Haddock, G. and Slade, P. D.), pp. 137150. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Romme, MAJ (1996). Understanding Voices. Gloucester: Handsell Publications:Google Scholar
Smith, MJ, Thirthalli, J, Abdallah, AB, Murray, RM, Cottler, LB (2009). Prevalence of psychotic symptoms in substance users: a comparison across substances. Comprehensive Psychiatry 50, 245–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tai, S, Turkington, D (2009). The evolution of CBT for schizophrenia: current practice and recent developments. Schizophrenia Bulletin 35, 865873.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teasdale, JD (1993). Emotion and two kinds of meaning: cognitive therapy and applied cognitive science. Behaviour Research and Therapy 31, 339354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, SC, Spacapan, S (1991). Perceptions of control in vulnerable populations. Journal of Social Issues 41, 121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tien, AY (1991). Distribution of hallucinations in the population. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 26, 287292.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turkington, D, Kingdon, D, Rathod, S, Wilcock, SKJ, Brabban, A, Cromarty, P, Dudley, R, Gray, R, Pelton, J, SiddleR, Weiden P R, Weiden P (2009). Back to Life, Back to Normality: Cognitive Therapy, Recovery and Psychosis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tyrrell, CL, Dozier, M, Teague, GB, Fallot, RD (1999). Effective treatment relationships for persons with serious psychiatric disorders: the importance of attachment states of mind. Journal of Consulting Clinical Psychology 67, 725733.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valmaggia, L, Bouman, T, Schuurman, I (2007). Attentional training with auditory hallucinations: a case study. Cognitive and Behavioural Practice 14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Os, J, Hanssen, M, Bijl, RV, Vollebergh, W (2001). Prevalence of psychotic disorder and community level of psychotic symptoms: an urban-rural comparison. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 663668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Submit a response

Comments

No Comments have been published for this article.