Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T04:04:32.197Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Allies, Government and Resistance: the Belgian Political Crisis of November 1944*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 February 2009

Geoffrey Warner
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

During the closing stages of the second world war in Europe, the British and the Americans, together with the governments they supported, were often faced with the problem of dealing with armed resistance movements which they themselves had actively fostered to help in the fight against the Germans. Despite significant national and even local variations, the root cause of the problem was the same everywhere: the resistance was a political as well as a military phenomenon. Many of its members did not regard their task as complete with the departure of the last German soldier. They saw defeat and occupation as the inevitable result of pre-war political, social and economic structures which they were determined to transform. While the allies and the governments they supported were themselves often in favour of change, they were rarely prepared to go either as far or as fast as some elements of the resistance desired. Confrontation was therefore almost inevitable.

Type
Research Article
Information
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society , Volume 28 , December 1978 , pp. 45 - 60
Copyright
Copyright © Royal Historical Society 1978

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Pogue, Forrest C., The Supreme Command (Washington, 1954), p. 534Google Scholar.

2 S.H.A.E.F. Mission (Belgium), Fortnightly Report No. 2, 17 October 1944, P.R.O., Foreign Office records, F.O. 371/38897/C15196/G, paragraph 5. Quotations from Crown copyright records in lie Public Record Office appear by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office.

3 ministériel, Arrèté, 13 September 1944, Le Moniteur Belge, 15–16 09 1944. pp. 54–5Google Scholar.

4 It is a moot point whether Demany was a communist in 1944. He did not publicly proclaim himself a member of the party until 1946. For more details on the Front de l'Indépendence, see Bernard, Henri, La Résistance 1940–1945, 2nd edn (Brussels, 1969), pp. 96–9Google Scholar; Tanham, George, Contribution à l'Histoire de la Résistance Belge 1940–1944 (Brussels, 1971), pp. 39–41Google Scholar.

5 For the Partisans Armés, see Bernard, , La Résistance, pp. 99–102Google Scholar.

6 Mme Degeer-Adère, in Belgium, Annales Parlementaires, Chambre des Reprèsentants, sèances du 3 Octobre 1944, p. 21Google Scholar.

7 Erskine report, 15 September 1944, P.R.O., War Office records, W.O. 219/126, partially printed in Coles, Harry L. and Weinberg, Albert K., Civil Affairs: Soldiers become Governors (Washington, 1964), pp. 804–05Google Scholar.

8 Knatchbull-Hugessen telegrams, 25 September 1944, F.O. 123/577; 2 October 1944, F.O. 371/38896/C13226.

9 Coles, and Weinberg, , Soldiers become Governors, p. 805Google Scholar.

10 Knatchbull-Hugessen despatch, 4 October 1944, F.O. 123/577; Le Drapeau Rouge, 3 October 1944, p. 1.

11 Gé;rard report, 10 November 1944, Gérard papers, Centre de Recherches et d'Etudes Historiques de la Seconde Guerre Mondiale (Brussels), Section 3, File ia, p. 4.

12 S.H.A.E.F. Mission (Belgium) report, 17 October 1944, cited in note 2, above.

13 Erskine letter, 21 October 1944, W.O. 219/3921, partially printed in Coles, and Weinberg, , Soldiers become Governors, p. 806Google Scholar. See also Aveling telegram, 22 October 1944, F.O. 371/38897/C14540.

14 Bedell Smith directive, 18 November 1944, W.O. 219/3921, partially printed in Coles, and Weinberg, , Soldiers become Governors, pp. 807–08Google Scholar.

15 Holman telegram (from Peake), Duff Cooper telegram (from Peake), 28 October 1944, F.O. 371/38897/C14900/G. Eisenhower personally reaffirmed the pledge of allied support during a one-day visit to Brussels on 10 November. See Aveling telegram, 11 November 1944, F.O. 371/38897/C15586/G.

16 Procès-verbal de la réunion tenue chez le Général-Major Erskine, le Ier novembre 1944 …, Gérard papers, Section 3, File Ia.

17 Erskine had already received suggestions from the Belgians that the allies should disarm the resistance. See his letter of 21 October 1944, cited in note 13, above.

18 De Standaard, 3 November 1944, p. 1.

19 Procés-verbal de la réunion tenue chez le Général-Major Erskine, le Ier novembre 1944…, cited in note 16, above; arrèté ministériel, 13 November 1944, Le Moniteur Belge, 12–13–14 November 1944, p. 899.

20 Le Drapeau Rouge, 14 November 1944, p. 1; 15/16 November 1944, p. 1.

21 Gérard report, 10 November 1944, cited in note 11, above, p. 10.

22 British Broadcasting Corporation, Daily Digest of World Broadcasts, No. 1, 949, Part II, Section 2C, p. iGoogle Scholar.

23 Farmar and Zollinger memorandum, 20 November 1944, F.O. 123/577.

24 Le Peuple, 18/19 November 1944, p. 1.

25 B.B.C., Daily Digest of World Broadcasts, No. 1,949. Part II, Section 2C, pp. v–viiiGoogle Scholar. See also Erskine telegram, 17 November 1944, F.O. 123/577.

26 Le Peuple, 18/19 November 1944, p.1.

27 B.B.C., Daily Digest of World Broadcasts, No. 1,953, Part II, Section 2C, pp. ii–iiiGoogle Scholar.

28 Knatchbull-Hugessen despatch, 21 November 1944, F.O. 371/38899/C16804.

29 Le Drapeau Rouge, 22/23 November 1944, p. 1; 25/26 November 1944, p.1.

30 S.H.A.E.F. Mission (Belgium), Fortnightly CASUM [Civil Affairs Summary] No. 6, 28 November 1944, W.O. 202/549, p.2; Knatchbull-Hugessen telegrams, 26, 28 November 1944, F.O. 371/38898/C16319/C16469; Van Brussel, Louis, Partizanen in Vlaanderen (Brussels, 1971), pp. 211–13Google Scholar. (Van Brussel, chief of staff of the Partisans Armés, was one of the demonstrators.)

31 Le Drapeau Rouge, 27 November 1944, p. 1.

32 Knatchbull-Hugessen letter, 28 November 1944, F.O. 123/577.

33 Knatchbull-Hugessen diary, 28 November 1944, Knatchbull-Hugessen papers, Churchill College, Cambridge.

34 Le Drapeau Rouge, 28/29 November 1944, p. 1.

35 Knatchbull-Hugessen diary, 28 November 1944; despatch, Brussels, News Chronicle, 29 11 1944, p. 1Google Scholar.

36 Annales Parlemmtaires, Chambre des Représentants, séance du 28 Novembre 1944, p. 73. The vote concerned the renewal and extension of the government's special powers.

37 S.H.A.E.F. Mission (Belgium), Fortnightly CASUM No. 7, 12 December 1944, W.O. 202/549, p. 1. The strike was strongly condemned by the socialist and catholic trade union federations. See B.B.C., Daily Digest of World Broadcasts, No. 1,961, Part II, Section 2C, pp. vii–viiiGoogle Scholar.

38 H. C. Deb., 5th series, Vol. 406, col. 930.

39 Brussels, despatch, New York Times, 3 12 1944, p. 7Google Scholar.

40 Solon, S. L. (Brussels), News Chronicle, 15 12 1944, p. 1Google Scholar. Solon's article led to questions in the House of Commons. See H. C. Deb., 5th series, Vol. 406, cols. 1621–24.

41 Enclosure to Knatchbull-Hugessen despatch, 29 December 1944, F.O. 371/48974/Z166.

42 See, for example, Duclos, Jacques, Mémoires, iii/2, De la Victoire de Stalingrad à la Capitulation de Berlin 1943–1945 (Paris, 1970), p, 303Google Scholar; Sereni, Emilio, ‘La scelta del 1943–'45’, Rinascita, 29 01 1971, p. 24Google Scholar.

43 See, for example, [Coenen, F.], ‘Bas les pattes de la Résistance!’, Le Drapeau Rouge, 5 10 1944, p. 1Google Scholar. It was even reported that Demany was planning to visit Paris to enlist General de Gaulle's support over the resistance issue. Knatchbull-Hugessen telegram, 12 November 1944, F.O. 371/38898/C15624/G.

44 Gorce, Paul-Marie de la, La République et son Armée (Paris, 1963), pp. 434–8Google Scholar; Wright, Gordon, The Reshaping of French Democracy (London, 1950), pp. 66–7Google Scholar; Rieber, Alfred J., Stalin and the French Communist Party 1941–1947 (New York, 1962), pp. 174–7, 183–9Google Scholar.

45 See the extract from the minute of the meeting of the C.L.N.A.I. on 12 January 1945, printed in Secchia, Pietro and Frassati, Filippo, La Resistenza e gli alleati (Milan, 1962), pp. 227–33Google Scholar. The socialists specifically drew the parallel between what was happening in Italy and what had happened in Greece and Belgium (pp. 227–28).

46 At a meeting of the party's central committee on 21 October 1944, its secretary-general, Edgar Lalmand, called for a regroupment of the left on the basis of a common programme. The same meeting authorized the despatch of a memorandum to Pierlot expressing the party's dissatisfaction with his performance so far. Le Drapeau Rouge, 24 October 1944, p. 1; 25 October 1944, p. 1.

47 Knatchbull-Hugessen despatch, 21 November 1944, cited in note 28, above.

48 Le Peuple, 27/28 November 1944, pp. 1–2; Wigham, Eric (Brussels), The Observer, 3 12 1944, p. 1Google Scholar.

49 VIIIe Congrès du Parti Communiste de Belgique, Bruxelles, les 2, 3, 4, 5 et 6 février 1946. Rapport d'activité du Comité Central du Parti Communiste depuis le VIIe Congrés tenu en août 1333 (Brussels, n.d.), pp. 23–4.

50 Harrison minute, 1 December 1944; Roberts minute, 3 December 1944; Warner minute, 4 December 1944; all in F.O. 371/38898/C16118.

51 ‘Waging a Mindless War’, New Statesman and Nation, 2 December 1944, p. 1.

52 Brussels, despatch, New York Times, 3 12 1944, p. 7Google Scholar.

53 S.H.A.E.F., Civil Affairs Weekly Summary No. 22, II November 1944, F.O. 371/42021/Z7826; Knatchbull-Hugessen despatch, 28 November 1944, F.O. 123/573; J[oint] I[ntelligence] C[ommittee] S.H.A.E.F. (44) 20 (Final), 1 January 1945, W.O. 219/1698, paragraph 8.

54 News Chronicle, 4 December 1944, p. 2.

55 JIC SHAEF (44) 20 (Final), 1 January 1945, cited in note 53, above.

56 King-Salter memorandum, 10 January 1945, United States National Archives, Record Group 331, S.H.A.E.F.-G2/J.I.C. Committee Subject File 1944–45. A photocopy of this document, which was declassified under the U.S. Freedom of Information Act on 17 February 1977, was kindly made available to me by Mr James Michael of the Polytechnic of Central London.

57 Knatchbull-Hugessen letter, 28 November 1944, cited in note 32, above.

58 Harvey minute, 4 December 1944, F.O. 371/38898/C16118.

59 Achille Van Acker, Willem Schermerhorn and Ferruccio Parri.