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Cooperation for Climate Mitigation in Amazonia: Brazil’s Emerging Role as a Regional Leader

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 October 2016

Maria Antonia Tigre
Maria Antonia Tigre*
Affiliation:
Cyrus R. Vance Center for International Justice, New York, NY (United States (US)).Email: matigre@nycbar.org.
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Abstract

Since their inception, climate change negotiations have stalled because of the scope of parties’ mitigation responsibilities under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The concept of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC) became a core principle of the framework to ensure consensus on a global climate policy in 1992 and to promote differentiation. By letting each country assess its current responsibilities and capacities for climate mitigation through their nationally determined contributions (NDCs), the Paris Agreement has built on the principle of CBDR-RC and promoted self-differentiation. As the concept evolved, the role of emerging economies has been a particular focus of discussions. Academia is still grappling with the revised meaning of CBDR-RC and the newly introduced NDCs. This article contributes to the discussion by analyzing the role of emerging economies in climate governance through the lens of regional responsibility. In particular, it discusses how cooperation can be a more effective way to ensure differentiation, especially by distinguishing emerging economies from other developing countries with fewer capacities. The article uses the Amazon rainforest as a case study, discussing Brazil’s role within the region. Building on lessons from regional schemes that have successfully promoted climate mitigation, the article looks at the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization (ACTO) as an avenue for enhanced cooperation at the regional level.

Keywords

DifferentiationCBDRRegional cooperationSupranational organizationsClimate changeMitigation
Type
Anniversary Issue Articles
Information
Transnational Environmental Law , Volume 5 , Special Issue 2: Fifth Anniversary Issue , October 2016 , pp. 401 - 425
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2016 

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References

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49 Ibid., Art. 3.

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55 Michaelowa & Michaelowa, n. 2 above, p. 502.

56 Maguire & Jiang, n. 27 above, p. 215.

57 Despite disagreements as to the legal status of NDCs, Art. 4(2) of the Paris Agreement establishes procedural obligations which require parties to ‘pursue domestic mitigation measures, with the aim of achieving the objective of [their] contributions’: see Bodansky, n. 35 above, pp. 14–5.

58 Ibid., p. 18.

59 Ibid., p. 5.

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64 UNFCCC Secretariat, n. 4 above. See also PBL, n. 4 above.

65 UNFCCC, n. 1 above, Art. 3.

66 For an analysis of SSC in environmental law, see Koh, K.L. & Robinson, N.A., ‘South-South Cooperation: Foundations for Sustainable Development’, in S. Alam et al. (eds), International Environmental Law and the Global South (Cambridge University Press, 2015), pp. 553–571 Google Scholar. The chapter uses the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) as an example, highlighting the need for further research into other regional schemes.

67 Ibid., pp. 553–4.

68 UN Office for South-South Cooperation, ‘What is South-South Cooperation?’, available at: http://ssc.undp.org/content/ssc/about/what_is_ssc.html.

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73 Ibid., p. 563.

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86 Agrawala et al., n. 70 above, p. 1123.

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103 Letchumanan, n. 99 above, p. xliii.

104 27 Apr. 2015, available at: http://www.asean.org/storage/images/2015/april/26th_asean_summit/DECLARATION%20ON%20INSTITUTIONALISING%20-%20Final.pdf.

105 ASEAN, Nay Pyi Taw Declaration on the ASEAN Community’s Post-2015 Vision, 12 Nov. 2014, available at: http://www.asean.org/storage/images/pdf/2014_upload/Nay%20Pyi%20Taw%20Declaration%20on%20the%20ASEAN%20Communitys%20Post%202015%20Vision%20w.annex.pdf.

106 Available at: http://environment.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/ANNEX-8-Lead-Countries-for-ASEAN-Action-Plan-on-Joint-Response-to-Climate-Change-27-March-2013.pdf.

107 Letchumanan, n. 99 above, p. xliii.

108 Michaelowa & Michaelowa, n. 2 above, p. 506.

109 Comisión Centroamericana de Ambiente y Desarrollo (CCAD) & Sistema de la Integración Centroamericana (SICA), ‘Regional Strategy on Climate Change’, Nov. 2010, p. 12, available at: http://www.uncsd2012.org/content/documents/regionalstrategyelsalvador.pdf.

110 Ibid., p. 44.

111 Ibid., p. 25.

112 Ibid., p. 43.

113 N. 109.

114 Belize, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama.

115 SICA, ‘Propósitos del SICA’, available at: http://www.sica.int/sica/propositos.aspx?IdEnt=401&Idm=1&IdmStyle=1 (in Spanish).

116 CCAD leads the Regional Agreement on Climate Change, signed in 1993 by Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama.

117 In the original: Estrategia Regional de Cambio Climatico (ERCC).

118 CCAD & SICA, n. 109 above, pp. 8, 12.

119 Ibid., p. 44.

120 Ibid., p. 54.

121 CCAD, ‘2015–2020 Framework Regional Environmental Strategy’, Dec. 2014, available at: http://www.sica.int/consulta/documento.aspx?idn=96024&idm=1.

122 Ibid., p. 7.

123 Ibid., p. 9.

124 Ibid., p. 14.

125 IPCC, Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis – Working Group I Contribution to the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report, Final Draft Underlying Scientific-Technical Assessment, 7 June 2013, pp. 6–66, available at: http://www.climatechange2013.org/images/uploads/WGIAR5_WGI-12Doc2b_FinalDraft_All.pdf.

126 Ibid.

127 Ibid., p. 38.

128 Sampaio, G., Ferreira Cardoso, M. & Salazar, L.F., A Review of Amazon Dieback and the Research on Tipping Points: Simulations and New Studies. Estimated Tipping Points for Combined Deforestation and Climate Impacts (The World Bank & INPE, 2009)Google Scholar. See also Vergara, W. & Scholz, S.M. (eds), Assessment of the Risk of Amazon Dieback (The World Bank, 2011)Google Scholar.

129 Paris Agreement, n. 3 above, Art. 5.1.

130 UN Environment Programme (UNEP) & Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization (ACTO), Geo Amazonia: Environmental Outlook in Amazonia (2009), p. 41.

131 See Central Intelligence Agency, ‘The World Factbook’, available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook.

132 Peru with 17,787.39, Suriname with 17,502.96, and Brazil with 15,941.00. Estimated GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) in 2015 in international dollars. The medium GDP per capita in Latin America is 15,617.79: International Monetary Fund, ‘Data’, available at: http://www.imf.org/external/data.htm.

133 14,164.43.

134 Venezuela with 12,638.84; Ecuador with 11,839.19.

135 Guyana with 7,279.77; Bolivia with 6,530.17.

136 Brazil has an estimated 439,413,000 metric tonnes of CO2 emissions: The World Bank, ‘CO2 Emissions (kt)’, available at: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.ATM.CO2E.KT/countries.

137 Colombia emits 72,423,000 metric tonnes while Venezuela emits 188,817,000 metric tonnes.

138 Bolivia with 16,120,000 metric tonnes, Ecuador with 35,728,000 metric tonnes, Guyana with 1,782,000 metric tonnes, and Suriname with 1,911,000 metric tonnes.

139 Bolivia, ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contribution from the Plurinational State of Bolivia’, 2015, available at: http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Bolivia/1/INDC-Bolivia-english.pdf.

140 Guyana, ‘Revised Intended Nationally Determined Contributions’, 2015, available at: http://www4.unfccc.int/ndcregistry/PublishedDocuments/Guyana/Guyana's%20revised%20NDC%20-%20Final.pdf.

141 Republic of Suriname, ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contribution under UNFCCC’, 10 Sept. 2015, available at: http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Suriname/1/INDC-2-Suriname%20300915.pdf.

142 Brazil, ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contribution towards Achieving the Objective of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’, 2015, available at: http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Brazil/1/BRAZIL%20iNDC%20english%20FINAL.pdf.

143 Colombia, ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contribution’, 2015, available at: http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Colombia/1/Colombia%20iNDC%20Unofficial%20translation%20Eng.pdf.

144 Peru, ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (iNDC) from the Republic of Peru’, Sept. 2015, available at: http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Peru/1/iNDC%20Perú%20english.pdf.

145 Ecuador, ‘Ecuador’s Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC)’, 2015, available at: http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Ecuador/1/Ecuador%20INDC%2001-10-2015%20-%20english%20unofficial%20translation.pdf.

146 Venezuela, ‘Contribuciones Previstas Nacionalmente Determinadas de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela para la lucha contra el Cambio Climático y sus efectos’, Nov. 2015, available at: http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Venezuela/1/Venezuela%20Diciembre%202015%20(final).pdf.

147 V. Romeiro & R. Biderman, ‘A Closer Look at Brazil’s New Climate Plan (INDC)’, WRI, 30 Sept. 2015, available at: http://www.wri.org/blog/2015/09/closer-look-brazils-new-climate-plan-indc.

148 Colombia and Peru could increase contributions to 30%, while Ecuador could increase to 37.5–45.8%.

149 Ecuador, n. 145 above, pp. 7–8.

150 Colombia, n. 143 above, pp. 8–9.

151 Guyana, n. 140 above, p. 3.

152 M.A. Vieira, ‘Brazilian Foreign Policy in the Context of Global Climate Norms’ (2012) Foreign Policy Analysis, pp. 1–18, at 2, available at: https://disciplinas.stoa.usp.br/pluginfile.php/326824/mod_resource/content/1/PEB%20Climate%20Changes%20MArco%20Antonio%20Vieira_FPA.pdf.

153 Ibid., p. 3.

154 Brazil, Decree No. 6,263 (Plano Nacional sobre Mudança do Clima), 21 Nov. 2007.

155 Brazil, Plano Amazônia Sustentável, MMA, 2008, available at: http://www.mma.gov.br/estruturas/sca/_arquivos/plano_amazonia_sustentavel.pdf.

156 Ethical Markets, ‘Brazil Commits to 80% Reduction in Amazon Deforestation by 2020’, 27 Oct. 2009, available at: http://www.ethicalmarkets.com/2009/10/27/brazil-commits-to-80-reduction-in-amazon-deforestation-by-2020. See also Vieira, n. 152 above, p. 14.

157 Brazil, Law No. 12,187/2009; Regulatory Decree No. 7,390/2010.

158 E. Viola, ‘Impasses e Perspectivas da Negociação Climática Global e Mudanças na Posição Brasileira’, CINDES, Dec. 2009, available at: http://www.fclar.unesp.br/Home/Pesquisa/GruposdePesquisa/NPPA/C.E_Helena_artigo_Viola_Cindes.pdf (in Spanish).

159 Brazil, Sectoral Adaptation and Mitigation Plans (MMA, 2013). See E. Viola, ‘Brazilian Climate Policy Since 2005: Continuity, Change and Prospective, Centre for European Policy Studies’, CEPS Working Doc. No. 373, Feb. 2013, available at: http://aei.pitt.edu/40230/1/WD_373_Viola_Brazilian_Climate_Policy.pdf; Alvarenga de Oliveira, K., ‘Brazilian Climate Change Law’, in C.P. Carlarne, K.R. Gray & R. Tarasofsky (eds), The Oxford Handbook of International Climate Change Law (Oxford University Press, 2016), pp. 725–737 Google Scholar.

160 Wang, X. et al., ‘Research and Scholarship on Climate Change Law in Developing Countries’, in Farber & Peeters, n. 16 above, pp. 115–125 Google Scholar, at 123.

161 Vieira, n. 152 above, p. 9.

162 Aamodt, S., ‘To Be – Or Not To Be – A Low-Carbon Economy: A Decade of Climate Politics in Brazil’, in G. Bang, A. Underdal & S. Andresen (eds), The Domestic Politics of Global Climate Change: Key Actors in International Climate Cooperation (Edward Elgar, 2015), pp. 25–48 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

163 Empresa de Pesquisa Energética, ‘Relatório Síntese do Balanço Energético Nacional’, 2015, available at: https://ben.epe.gov.br/BENRelatorioSintese.aspx?anoColeta=2015&anoFimColeta=2014 (in Spanish).

164 See the example of forest monitoring in Section 4.4.

165 Brazil, Law No. 12,651, 25 May 2012, available at: http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2011-2014/2012/lei/l12651.htm.

166 Brazil, Decree No. 6,263 (National Plan of Climate Change), 21 Nov. 2007, available at: http://www.mma.gov.br/estruturas/smcq_climaticas/_arquivos/plano_nacional_mudanca_clima.pdf.

167 Romeiro & Biderman, n. 147 above.

168 Protocol of Amendment for the Creation of the Organization of the Amazon Cooperation Treaty (ACT Amendment Protocol), agreed 14 Dec. 1998. Brazil, Legislative Decree 1999, 25 Sept. 2002.

169 Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation (Amazon Cooperation Treaty (ACT)), 3 July 1978, available at: http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/entri/texts/amazonian.cooperation.1978.html.

170 ACT Amendment Protocol, n. 168 above, p. 1.

171 ACTO, ‘Agenda Estratégica de Cooperação Amazônica’ Nov. 2010, available at: http://otca.info/portal/admin/_upload/apresentacao/AECA_prt.pdf (in Spanish).

172 Ibid., p. 52, item H.

173 ACTO, ‘Monitoreo de la Cobertura Forestal en la Región Amazónica’, Nov. 2014, available at: http://otca.info/portal/admin/_upload/publicacoes/446-Monitoreo.pdf (in Spanish).

174 Ibid., p. 4.

175 ATCO, ‘El Cambio Climático en la Región Amazónica’, 2014, p. 17, available at: http://www.otca.info/portal/admin/_upload/publicacoes/531-libro.cambio.climatico_esp.pdf (in Spanish).

176 The ACTO was only present at COP-21, in Lima (Peru).

177 IPCC, Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge University Press, 2007)Google Scholar.

178 UNDP, n. 75 above, p. 46.

179 Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (REDD+): see UNFCCC Secretariat, REDD+ Platform, available at http://redd.unfccc.int.

180 UNDP, n. 75 above, p. 288.

181 Meinshausen, M. et al., ‘National Post-2020 Greenhouse Gas Targets and Diversity-Aware Leadership’ (2015) 5 Nature Climate Change, pp. 1098–1106 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.