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Conservation Introductions for Biodiversity Adaptation under Climate Change

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 January 2018

Phillipa C. McCormack Open the ORCID record for Phillipa C. McCormack [Opens in a new window]
Phillipa C. McCormack*
Affiliation:
Faculty of Law, University of Tasmania, Sandy Bay, Tasmania (Australia). Email: phillipa.mccormack@utas.edu.au.
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Abstract

Anthropogenic climate change represents a wicked problem, both for the Earth’s natural systems and for biodiversity conservation law and policy. Legal frameworks for conservation have a critical role to play in helping species and ecosystems to adapt as the climate changes. However, they are currently poorly equipped to regulate adaptation strategies that demand high levels of human intervention. This article investigates law and policy for conservation introductions, which involve relocating species outside their historical habitat. It takes as a case study Australian law on conservation introductions, demonstrating theoretical and practical legal hurdles to these strategies at international, national and subnational levels. The article argues that existing legal mechanisms may be repurposed, in some cases, to better regulate conservation introduction projects. However, new legal mechanisms are also needed, and soon, to effectively conserve species and ecosystems in a period of unprecedented ecological change.

Keywords

Climate adaptationConservation lawAssisted colonizationEcological replacementThreatened species
Type
Article
Information
Transnational Environmental Law , Volume 7 , Issue 2 , July 2018 , pp. 323 - 345
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2018 

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Footnotes

My sincere thanks to my PhD supervisors, Jan McDonald and Michael Lockwood of the University of Tasmania, for their ongoing support and excellent guidance. I am also grateful to two anonymous reviewers for TEL, whose comments have significantly improved this article.

References

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9 Steffen et al., n. 3 above, pp. 8–9, 93.

10 Burbidge, A.A. et al., ‘Is Australia Ready for Assisted Colonization? Policy Changes Required to Facilitate Translocations under Climate Change’ (2011) 17(3) Pacific Conservation Biology, pp. 259–269 Google Scholar, at 259; Steffen et al., n. 3 above, pp. 15–6.

11 Steffen et al., n. 3 above, pp. 178–9, 196; M. Dunlop et al., The Implications of Climate Change for Biodiversity Conservation and the National Reserve System: Final Synthesis, Report prepared for the Australian Government (CSIRO Climate Adaptation Flagship, 2012), p. 7.

12 Seddon, P.J., ‘From Reintroduction to Assisted Colonization: Moving Along the Conservation Translocation Spectrum’ (2010) 18(6) Restoration Ecology, pp. 796–802 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 798.

13 Dunlop et al., n. 11 above, pp. 21–2; O’Sullivan, O.S. et al., ‘Thermal Limits of Leaf Metabolism Across Biomes’ (2017) 23(1) Global Change Biology, pp. 209–223 Google Scholar.

14 Dirzo et al., n. 3 above, pp. 403–5.

15 Seddon, n. 12 above, pp. 798–9; McLachlan, J.S., Hellmann, J.J. & Schwartz, M.W., ‘A Framework for Debate of Assisted Migration in an Era of Climate Change’ (2007) 21(2) Conservation Biology, pp. 297–302 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hoegh-Guldberg et al., n. 7 above.

16 IUCN/Species Survival Commission (SSC), Guidelines for Reintroductions and Other Conservation Translocations: Version 1.0 (IUCN/SSC, 2013) (IUCN Guidelines), p. 3.

17 Ibid. While adopting IUCN terminology, this author supports calls for the culturally insensitive term ‘assisted colonization’ to be abandoned: see E. Lee et al., ‘The Language of Science: Essential Ingredients for Indigenous Participation’, [square brackets]: CBD Newsletter for Civil Society, Issue 10, May 2016, p. 22, available at: https://www.cbd.int/ngo/square-brackets/square-brackets-2016-04-en.pdf.

18 IUCN Guidelines, n. 16 above.

19 Seddon, n. 12 above, p. 799.

20 Ibid.

21 IUCN Guidelines, n. 16 above; Harris, S. et al., ‘Whose Backyard? Some Precautions in Choosing Recipient Sites for Assisted Colonisation of Australian Plants and Animals’ (2013) 14(2) Ecological Management & Restoration, pp. 106–111 Google Scholar, at 108–9.

22 E.g. United Kingdom: S.G. Willis et al., n. 6 above; New Zealand: Chauvenet, A.L.M. et al., ‘Saving the Hihi under Climate Change: A Case for Assisted Colonization’ (2013) 50(6) Journal of Applied Ecology, pp. 1330–1340 Google Scholar; Australia: Short, J., Australian Animal Welfare Strategy: The Characteristics and Success of Vertebrate Translocations within Australia (Australian Government, 2009), pp. iv–vii Google Scholar.

23 E.g., unregulated and ongoing introductions of Torreya taxifolia north of its historical distribution, available at: http://www.torreyaguardians.org/torreya.html; Section 4.3 below.

24 Ricciardi, A. & Simberloff, D., ‘Assisted Colonization: Good Intentions and Dubious Risk Assessment’ (2009) 24(9) Trends in Ecology & Evolution, pp. 476–477 Google Scholar; Xu, H. et al., ‘Intentionally Introduced Species: More Easily Invited than Removed’ (2014) 23(10) Biodiversity and Conservation, pp. 2637–2643 Google Scholar.

25 Schwartz, M.W. & Martin, T.G., ‘Translocation of Imperiled Species under Changing Climates’ (2013) 1286 Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, pp. 15–28 Google Scholar.

26 Seddon, P.J. et al., ‘The Risks of Assisted Colonization’ (2009) 23(4) Conservation Biology, pp. 788–789 Google Scholar, at 788.

27 Mitchell, N. et al., ‘Linking Eco-Energetics and Eco-Hydrology to Select Sites for the Assisted Colonization of Australia’s Rarest Reptile’ (2013) 2(1) Biology (Basel), pp. 1–25 Google Scholar.

28 Burbidge et al., n. 10 above.

29 For a US perspective, see Joly, J.L. & Fuller, N., ‘Advising Noah: A Legal Analysis of Assisted Migration’ (2009) 39(5) Environmental Law Reporter, pp. 10413–10425 Google Scholar; Camacho, A.E., ‘Assisted Migration: Redefining Nature and Natural Resource Law under Climate Change’ (2010) 27(2) Yale Journal on Regulation, pp. 171–255 Google Scholar; Shirey, P.D. & Lamberti, G.A., ‘Assisted Colonization under the U.S. Endangered Species Act’ (2010) 3(1) Conservation Letters, pp. 45–52 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

30 Craig, R.K., ‘“Stationarity is Dead” – Long Live Transformation: Five Principles for Climate Change Adaptation Law’ (2010) 34(1) Harvard Environmental Law Review, pp. 9–73 Google Scholar, at 31–2.

31 Ibid.; Milly, P.C.D. et al., ‘Stationarity is Dead: Whither Water Management?’ (2008) 319(5863) Science, pp. 573–574 Google Scholar, at 573.

32 The potential barriers created by this paradigm are increasingly recognized in legal scholarship: e.g., Trouwborst, A., ‘International Nature Conservation Law and the Adaptation of Biodiversity to Climate Change: A Mismatch?’ (2009) 21(3) Journal of Environmental Law, pp. 419–442 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Camacho, n. 29 above.

33 Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), 5 June 1992, in force 29 Dec. 1993, available at: http://www.cbd.int/convention/text/default.shtml.

34 Emphasis added.

35 CBD, n. 33 above, Art. 9 Preamble and Art. 9(a).

36 CBD, n. 33 above, Art. 9(c); and, in regional law, EU Directive 92/43/EEC on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and Wild Fauna and Flora [1992] OJ L 206/7 (EU Habitats Directive), Arts 1–2, prioritizes the maintenance and restoration of natural habitats and species at favourable conservation status, within each territory or member state (i.e., in situ).

37 IUCN Guidelines, n. 16 above, p. 1.

38 Ibid.

39 Ramsar (Iran), 2 Feb. 1971, in force 21 Dec. 1975, Preamble, available as amended at: http://www.ramsar.org/document/the-convention-on-wetlands-text-as-amended-in-1982-and-1987.

40 Rogers, K., Saintilan, N. & Copeland, C., ‘Managed Retreat of Saline Coastal Wetlands: Challenges and Opportunities Identified from the Hunter River Estuary, Australia’ (2014) 37(1) Estuaries and Coasts, pp. 67–78 Google Scholar, at 75–6.

41 Paris (France), 16 Nov. 1972, in force 17 Dec. 1975, available at: http://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext.

42 Ibid., Arts 2 and 4.

43 See also the Australian World Heritage Management Principles in the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Regulations 2000 (Cth), Sch. 5.

44 Matters of national environmental significance protected under the EPBC Act include Australia’s obligations under international environmental conventions.

45 For simplicity, hereafter, ‘states’.

46 EPBC Act, s. 3(2)(e)(i).

47 Causing harm to a nationally listed threatened species may result in civil or criminal liability: EPBC Act, ss. 18, 18A.

48 Causing harm to a world heritage property or a Ramsar wetland may incur civil or criminal liability: EPBC Act, ss. 12, 15A (world heritage) and ss. 16, 17B (Ramsar wetlands).

49 EPBC Act, s. 28(1).

50 Short, n. 22 above, pp. 10, 21.

51 The Minister has a discretion to make a recovery plan for a listed species or ecological community: EPBC Act, s. 269AA. If a recovery plan exists, it must be implemented (at least on federal government land) (s. 269), and not contravened (s. 268).

52 EPBC Act, s. 270(1) and (2).

53 Translocation proposals are procedural documents that identify all relevant information for the proposal, including risk assessment details and scientific research.

54 Australian Government, Department of the Environment and Energy, Translocation of Listed Threatened Species – Assessment under Chapter 4 of the EPBC Act (Australian Government, 2013)Google Scholar (Federal Policy Statement).

55 Ibid., p. 3.

56 Ibid., p. 2. This demonstrates a lower priority in practice for ecosystem conservation over threatened species, though evidence of potential benefits to the receiving location would, presumably, be relevant to the ultimate question of whether the action should be permitted.

57 Burbidge et al., n. 10 above, p. 264.

58 See Threatened Species Recovery Hub of the National Environmental Science Programme, available at: http://www.nespthreatenedspecies.edu.au/research/theme/theme-04-reintroductions-and-refugia.

59 E.g., Wildlife Act 1975 (Vic), s. 28A authorizes collecting, keeping and taking native wildlife; animal cruelty or ethics committee permits may also be required.

60 New South Wales National Parks & Wildlife Service, Policy and Procedure Statement No. 9: Policy for the Translocation of Threatened Fauna in NSW (2001) (NSW Policy); Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management, Policy Statement No. 29: Translocation of Threatened Flora and Fauna (1995) (Western Australian Policy); Victorian Department of Environment & Primary Industries, Procedure Statement for Translocation of Threatened Native Vertebrate Fauna in Victoria (2013) (Victorian Policy); South Australian Government, Draft Translocations of Native Fauna Policy 2006 (SA), and Draft Translocations of Native Fauna Procedure 2006 (SA) (neither is publicly available); Northern Territory Government, Translocating Threatened Animals Policy, Revised Draft (2009) (not publicly available); Queensland Environment Protection Agency, ‘Policy 5: Requirements for the Translocation, Relocation and Release of Koalas’, in Nature Conservation (Koala) Conservation Plan 2006 and Management Program 2006–16 (2005) (Queensland Policy); Tasmanian Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water & the Environment (DPIPWE Tasmania), Policy and Procedures for Translocations (Tasmanian Government, 2011) (Tasmanian Policy). See the comparison of the publicly available policies in Table 1 below.

61 Harris et al., n. 21 above.

62 E.g., Tasmanian Policy, n. 60 above, p. 4.

63 Ibid., p. 5.

64 Ibid., p. 13.

65 Ibid., p. 15. A similar issue and requirement is addressed in the Victorian Policy, n. 60 above, p. 15.

66 Tasmanian Policy, n. 60 above, p. 15.

67 Ibid., p. 4. The NSW Policy defines ‘introductions’ broadly to include situations in which ‘the translocated species is to fill a niche role where such a role is crucial to the proper functioning or sustainability of the host environment’: NSW Policy, n. 60 above, p. 6, and Table 1 below.

68 Harris et al., n. 21 above, p. 107; McDonald-Madden, E. et al., ‘Optimal Timing for Managed Relocation of Species Faced with Climate Change’ (2011) 1 Nature Climate Change, pp. 261–265 Google Scholar.

69 E.g., Pecl et al., n. 5 above.

70 Thomas et al., n. 4 above.

71 Western Australian Policy, n. 60 above, p. 4.

72 Woinarski, J.C.Z. et al., ‘The Contribution of Policy, Law, Management, Research, and Advocacy Failings to the Recent Extinctions of 3 Australian Vertebrate Species’ (2016) 31(1) Conservation Biology, pp. 13–23 Google Scholar.

73 McDonald, J.A. et al., ‘Improving Policy Efficiency and Effectiveness to Save More Species: A Case Study of the Megadiverse Country Australia’ (2015) 182 Biological Conservation, pp. 102–108 Google Scholar.

74 E.g., Classen, A.T. et al., ‘Direct and Indirect Effects of Climate Change on Soil Microbial and Soil Microbial-Plant Interactions: What Lies Ahead?’ (2015) 6(8) Ecosphere, Article 130 Google Scholar.

75 Burbidge et al., n. 10 above, pp. 264–5.

76 NSW Policy, n. 60 above, p. 3, although it appears that interstate species can be introduced to NSW under this policy only if they are listed as threatened under the NSW legislation. It remains to be seen whether the NSW government’s enactment in late 2016 of the new Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 will trigger a review of this translocation policy.

77 Tasmanian Policy, n. 60 above, p. 4. The Queensland Policy (n. 60 above, p. 4) is directed only to ‘conserving koalas in the wild in Queensland’.

78 E.g., DPIPWE Tasmania, Vulnerability of Tasmania’s Natural Environment to Climate Change: An Overview, unpublished report (DPIPWE Tasmania, 2010), p. 6.

79 Reside, A.E. et al., Climate Change Refugia for Terrestrial Biodiversity: Defining Areas that Promote Species Persistence and Ecosystem Resilience in the Face of Global Climate Change (National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, 2013), p. 49 Google Scholar.

80 Arnold, C.A. & Gunderson, L.H., ‘Adaptive Law and Resilience’ (2013) 43 Environmental Law Reporter, pp. 10426–10442 Google Scholar; Arnold, C.A. & Gunderson, L.H., ‘Adaptive Laws’, in A.S. Garmestani & C.R. Allen (eds), Social-Ecological Resilience and Law (Columbia University Press, 2014), pp. 243–277 Google Scholar.

81 Craig, n. 30 above.

82 Ibid.; McDonald, J. et al., ‘Rethinking Legal Objectives for Climate-Adaptive Conservation’ (2016) 21(2) Ecology and Society, pp. 25–34 Google Scholar; Neff, M.W. & Larson, B.M.H., ‘Scientists, Managers and Assisted Colonization: Four Contrasting Perspectives Entangle Science and Policy’ (2014) 172 Biological Conservation, pp. 1–7 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 4–5.

83 E.g, Dunlop et al., n. 11 above, pp. 21–2; Pecl et al., n. 5 above.

84 McDonald et al., n. 82 above; Heller, N.E. & Hobbs, R.J., ‘Development of a Natural Practice to Adapt Conservation Goals to Global Change’ (2014) 28(3) Conservation Biology, pp. 696–704 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Pritchard, D.J. & Harrop, S.R., ‘A Re-evaluation of the Role of Ex Situ Conservation in the Face of Climate Change’ (2010) 7(1) BGJournal, pp. 1–4 Google Scholar, at 2–3.

85 Braverman, I., ‘Conservation without Nature: The Trouble with In Situ versus Ex Situ Conservation’ (2014) 51 Geoforum, pp. 47–57 Google Scholar, at 47.

86 CBD, n. 33 above (emphasis added).

87 E.g., the EPBC Act, s. 528, defines a ‘native species’ as including any species ‘that was present in Australia or an external Territory before 1400’; Braverman, n. 85 above.

88 Bradshaw, C.J.A. et al., ‘Conservation Value of Non-Native Banteng in Northern Australia’ (2006) 20(4) Conservation Biology, pp. 1306–1311 Google Scholar.

89 IUCN, ‘Glossary of Conservation Terms’, p. 70, available at: https://www.iucn.org/downloads/en_iucn__glossary_definitions.pdf.

90 Rees, P.A., ‘Is There a Legal Obligation to Reintroduce Animal Species into their Former Habitats?’ (2001) 35(3) Oryx, pp. 216–223 Google Scholar, at 218; Habitats Directive, n. 36 above.

91 Heller & Hobbs, n. 84 above; Cliquet, A. et al., ‘Adaptation to Climate Change: Legal Challenges for Protected Areas’ (2009) 5(1) Utrecht Law Review, pp. 158–175 Google Scholar, at 172–4.

92 Finnish Supreme Administrative Court, Decision No. 2247, 29 Aug. 2012, available at: http://www.finlex.fi/fi/oikeus/hao/2011/turun_hao20110001, discussed in Borgström, S., ‘Helping Biodiversity Adapt to Climate Change: Implications for Nature Conservation Law in Finland’ (2012) 1 Nordic Environmental Law Journal, pp. 31–42 Google Scholar.

93 Available at: http://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/1996/en19961096.pdf.

94 Finnish Supreme Administrative Court, n. 92 above.

95 E.g., by recognizing crucial ecosystem roles being played by neo-native species: McCormack, P.C. & McDonald, J., ‘Adaptation Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation: Has Australian Law Got What It Takes?’ (2014) 31 Environmental and Planning Law Journal, pp. 114–136 Google Scholar, at 129.

96 Webber, B.I. & Scott, J.K., ‘Rapid Global Change: Implications for Defining Natives and Aliens’ (2012) 21(3) Global Ecology and Biogeography, pp. 305–311 Google Scholar, at 308–9; Seddon, n. 12 above, p. 800.

97 CBD, n. 33 above, Art. 8; Adam, P., ‘Going with the Flow? Threatened Species Management and Legislation in the Face of Climate Change’ (2009) 10(s1) Ecological Management & Restoration, pp. S44–52 CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at S50–1.

98 E.g., ‘Principles of the Ecosystem Approach’ were endorsed for implementation under the CBD in Decision V/6, Ecosystem Approach, UN Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/5/23, 26 May 2000, including Principle 5, that the ‘[c]onservation of ecosystem structure and functioning, in order to maintain ecosystem services, should be a priority target’.

99 E.g., EPBC Act, s. 178 (species), s. 181 (ecological communities).

100 McDonald et al., n. 73 above; Supreme Court of Victoria, Environment East Gippsland Inc v. VicForests (2010) 30 Victorian Reports 1.

101 E.g., Walker, B. et al., ‘Resilience, Adaptability and Transformability in Social-Ecological Systems’ (2004) 9(2) Ecology and Society, pp. 5–13 Google Scholar; Wilmers, C.C. & Getz, W.M., ‘Gray Wolves as Climate Change Buffers in Yellowstone’ (2005) 3(4) PLOS Biology, pp. 571–576 Google Scholar.

102 E.g., Clement, S., Moore, S.A. & Lockwood, M., ‘Authority, Responsibility and Process in Australian Biodiversity Policy’ (2015) 32(2) Environment and Planning Law Journal, pp. 93–114 Google Scholar; but see Ruhl, J.B., ‘General Design Principles for Resilience and Adaptive Capacity in Legal Systems – With Applications to Climate Change Adaptation’ (2011) 89(5) North Carolina Law Review, pp. 1373–1401 Google Scholar, at 1396–7.

103 Stein, B.A. et al., ‘Preparing for and Managing Change: Climate Adaptation for Biodiversity and Ecosystems’ (2013) 11(9) Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, pp. 502–510 Google Scholar, at 506. On engaging non-government groups and local communities in translocation planning, see New Zealand Department of Conservation, Translocation Guide for Community Groups: The Translocation Process – From the Idea to Reporting (New Zealand Government; 2011)Google Scholar.

104 E.g., Olive, A., ‘The Road to Recovery: Comparing Canada and US Recovery Strategies for Shared Endangered Species’ (2014) 58(3) The Canadian Geographer/Le Géographe Canadien, pp. 263–275 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

105 E.g. between Pacific Island nations: D.C. Kesler, ‘Translocation as a Conservation Tool for Restoring Insular Avifauna: Pacific Island Restoration Challenges’, technical paper presented at the Partners in Environmental Technology Technical Symposium & Workshop, 29 Nov.–1 Dec. 2011, Washington, DC (US); and between Australia and its island neighbours such as Papua New Guinea and Indonesia.

106 McDonald et al., n. 82 above, p. 32.

107 Western Australian Policy, n. 60 above, p. 4.1 Policy, and para. 2 Definitions.

108 Target 15 of the Aichi Targets, adopted under the CBD in Decision X/2, Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020, UN Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/X/2, 29 Oct. 2010.

109 Seddon, P.J. et al., ‘Reversing Defaunation: Restoring Species in a Changing World’ (2014) 345(6195) Science, pp. 406–412 Google Scholar, at 410.

110 Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Branch, Freycinet National Park and Wye River State Reserve Management Plan 2000 (Tasmanian Government, 2000)Google Scholar, p. 39 (emphasis added).

111 E.g., Weeks, A.R. et al., ‘Assessing the Benefits and Risks of Translocations in Changing Environments: A Genetic Perspective’ (2011) 4(6) Evolutionary Applications, pp. 709–725 Google Scholar, at 709–10; Hughes, L., ‘Can Australian Biodiversity Adapt to Climate Change?’, in D. Lunney & P. Hutchings (eds), Wildlife and Climate Change: Towards Robust Conservation Strategies for Australian Fauna (Royal Zoological Society of NSW, 2012), pp. 8–10 Google Scholar, at 8.

112 Harris et al., n. 21 above, p. 107; Camacho, n. 29 above, p. 236.

113 EPBC Act, s. 176

114 Pope, J. & Moore, S.A., Planning and Assessment for Biodiversity Conservation at a Landscape Scale: An Evaluation of Current Approaches and Opportunities in Australia (University of Tasmania, 2013)Google Scholar.

115 The concept of green zones may also be particularly valuable for ecological restoration for climate adaptation and, potentially, the use of conservation introductions for rewilding: e.g., Seddon et al., n. 109 above, pp. 410–1.

116 Burbidge et al., n. 10 above, p. 261; Weeks et al., n. 111 above, pp. 718–9.

117 Steffen et al., n. 3 above, p. 185; Schwartz, M.W. et al., ‘Managed Relocation: Integrating the Scientific, Regulatory, and Ethical Challenges’ (2012) 62(8) BioScience, pp. 732–743 Google Scholar, at 735.

118 With the exception of Tasmania: see Table 1.

119 Camacho, n. 29 above, p. 254; the principle against transboundary harm may apply internationally, but domestically recourse may need to be had to common law actions such as nuisance or tort.

120 Webber, B.L., Scott, J.K. & Didham, R.K., ‘Translocation or Bust! A New Acclimatization Agenda for the 21st Century?’ (2011) 26(10) Trends in Ecology & Evolution, pp. 495–496 Google Scholar, at 495.

121 This may arise, e.g., if an area identified as a critical wildfire refuge will not persist in its current location: I.F.G. McLean, ‘A Habitats Translocation Policy for Britain’, Joint Nature Conservation Committee, July 2003, available at: http://jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-2921#download; Box, J., ‘Habitat Translocation, Rebuilding Diversity and No Net Loss of Biodiversity’ (2014) 28(4) Water and Environment Journal, pp. 540–546 Google Scholar.

122 Box, J., ‘Critical Factors and Evaluation Criteria for Habitat Translocation’ (2003) 46(6) Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, pp. 839–856 Google Scholar.

123 E.g., M.W. Schwartz et al., n. 117 above, p. 737; McDonald, J., McCormack, P.C. & Foerster, A., ‘Promoting Resilience to Climate Change in Australian Conservation Law: The Case of Biodiversity Offsets’ (2016) 39(4) UNSW Law Journal, pp. 1612–1651 Google Scholar, at 1626–9.

124 Burbidge et al., n. 10 above, pp. 261–3.

125 E.g., Schwartz & Martin, n. 25 above, pp. 22, 24; IUCN Guidelines, n. 16 above, para. 5.2.

126 E.g., Shirey & Lamberti, n. 29 above, pp. 47–9.

127 Sandler, R., ‘The Value of Species and the Ethical Foundations of Assisted Colonization’ (2010) 24(2) Conservation Biology, pp. 424–431 Google Scholar; Olson, E.R. et al., ‘Pendulum Swings in Wolf Management Led to Conflict, Illegal Kills, and a Legislated Wolf Hunt’ (2014) 8(5) Conservation Letters, pp. 351–360 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

128 IUCN Guidelines, n. 16 above, para. 5.2; though both the Tasmanian Policy (n. 60 above, p. 15) and Victorian Policy (n. 60 above, p. 15) require that translocation proposals consider the potential for community resistance.

129 Ruhl, J.B., ‘Climate Change Adaptation and the Structural Transformation of Environmental Law’ (2010) 40 Environmental Law, pp. 363–431 Google Scholar, at 364.

130 NSW Policy, n. 60 above, p. 3; Western Australian Policy, n. 60 above, para. 4.2; and Victorian Policy, n. 60 above, p. 1.

131 Torreya Guardians, n. 23 above; Shirey, P.D. et al., ‘Commercial Trade of Federally Listed Threatened and Endangered Plants in the United States’ (2013) 6(5) Conservation Letters, pp. 300–316 Google Scholar, at 304.

132 Initial plans to capture the ‘feral’ beaver population were abandoned in favour of monitoring and managing their impacts at the new site: Scottish Natural Heritage, ‘Beavers’, available at: http://www.snh.gov.uk/protecting-scotlands-nature/beavers.

133 Settele et al., n. 6 above, p. 324.

134 Lausche, B. et al., The Legal Aspects of Connectivity Conservation: A Concept Paper (IUCN, 2013)Google Scholar.

135 Worboys, G.L., Francis, W.L. & Lockwood, M. (eds), Connectivity Conservation Management: A Global Guide (Earthscan, 2010)Google Scholar; McCormack & McDonald, n. 95 above, p. 124.

136 E.g., ‘Yellowstone to Yukon Initiative’, available at: https://y2y.net; ‘Algonquin to Adirondacks Collaborative’, available at: www.a2acollaborative.org.

137 E.g., the Australian Alps to Atherton Connectivity Conservation Area: G.L. Worboys et al., ‘The Australian Alps to Atherton (A2A) Connectivity Conservation Area: A National Response to Climate Change’, paper prepared for the Australian Protected Area Congress 2008, 24–28 Nov. 2008, Sunshine Coast, Qld (Australia); Lausche et al., n. 134 above, p. 3; Bennet, A., Linkages in the Landscape: The Role of Corridors and Connectivity in Wildlife Conservation (IUCN Forest Conservation Programme, 2003)Google Scholar.

138 Worboys, Francis & Lockwood, n. 135 above, pp. 5–6.

139 Lawler, J.J. & Olden, J.D., ‘Reframing the Debate over Assisted Colonization’ (2011) 9(10) Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, pp. 569–574 Google Scholar, at 572–3.

140 Australian Invasive Species Council (ISC), ‘Corridor Risk Assessment Needed: A Submission about the Draft National Wildlife Corridors Plan’, Apr. 2012, p. 7, available at: https://invasives.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/ISC-NWPC-submission.pdf (suggesting that ‘corridors should exclude areas where important conservation values depend on isolation from threats’).

141 E.g., Worboys, Francis & Lockwood, n. 135 above; Wyborn, C., ‘Cross-Scale Linkages in Connectivity Conservation: Adaptive Governance Challenges in Spatially Distributed Networks’ (2015) 25(1) Environmental Policy and Governance, pp. 1–15 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

142 S. Whitten et al., ‘A Compendium of Existing and Planned Australian Wildlife Corridor Projects and Initiatives, and Case Study Analysis of Operational Experience’, Report for the Australian Government Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities, CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences, June 2011, p. 43, available at: https://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/89dcc7cf-7210-40ae-b74e-22e904db3518/files/compendium.pdf.

143 Harris et al., n. 21 above, p. 108.