Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T05:33:04.993Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

‘Calculating class’: housing, lifestyle and status in the provincial English city, 1900–1950*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 May 2009

NICK HAYES*
Affiliation:
School of Arts and Humanities, Nottingham Trent University, Clifton Lane, Nottingham, NGII 8NS

Abstract

The multifarious ‘objective’ indicators used to place individuals by class (for example, occupation, wealth, income), or proxies thereof, capture only a part of who we are. More important is our ‘style of life’: our tastes, how we spend what we earn and how this interplays socially to include or exclude us from ‘society’. Of these the most significant cultural site was an individual's house and home, against which, using local property tax records, we can place a defined numeric value. This article analyses class in relation to housing and property values in Nottingham in the first half of the twentieth century.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Centers, R., The Psychology of Social Classes (Princeton, 1949), 27Google Scholar, 78.

2 Stacey, M., Tradition and Change: A Study of Banbury (London, 1960), 145Google Scholar, 148–9, 164; Martin, F.M., ‘Some subjective aspects of social stratification’, in Glass, D.V. (ed.), Social Mobility in Britain (London, 1954), 55Google Scholar; Goldthorpe, J.H. and Hope, K., The Social Grading of Occupations: A New Approach and Scale (Oxford, 1974), 4Google Scholar; Bourdieu, P., Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (London, trans., 1986)Google Scholar; Crosland, C.A.R., The Future of Socialism (London, 1956), 176–7Google Scholar; Gunn, S., The Public Culture of the Victorian Middle Class: Ritual and Authority in the English Industrial City 1840–1914 (Manchester, 2000), 24Google Scholar; Weber, M., ‘Class, status, party’, in Gerth, H.H. and Mills, C. Wright (eds.), From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (London, 1948), 187Google Scholar.

3 Stacey, Tradition, 149; Trainor, R., ‘The middle class’, in Daunton, M. (ed.), The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, vol. III: 1840–1950 (Cambridge, 2000), 687Google Scholar; Cannadine, D., Class in Britain (Yale, 1998), 121Google Scholar; Bourdieu, Distinction, 55–6, 114–25, 253; Goldthorpe and Hope, Social Grading, 4–5, 12, 19; Bronner, S. (ed.), Consuming Visions: Accumulation and Display of Goods in America, 1880–1820 (New York, 1989)Google Scholar.

4 Thompson, E.P., The Making of the English Working Class (London, 1963), 910Google Scholar; Jackson, A., The Middle Classes 1900–1950 (Nairn, 1991), 1112Google Scholar; McKibbin, R., Classes and Cultures: England 1918–1951 (Oxford, 1998), 45CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Savage, M. and Miles, A., The Remaking of the British Working Class 1840–1940 (London, 1994), 1718Google Scholar; Marwick, A., Class: Image and Reality in Britain, France and the USA since 1930 (Houndsmill, 1990), 262Google Scholar.

5 Trainor, R., Black Country Elites: The Exercise of Authority in an Industrialised Area 1830–1900 (Oxford, 1993), 385–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rubinstein, W., ‘Education and the social origins of British elites, 1880–1970’, in Rubinstein, W.D. (ed.), Elites and the Wealthy in Modern British History (Brighton, 1987), 186–7Google Scholar. On the problems of placement, see Savage, M., Barlow, J., Dickens, P. and Fielding, A., Property, Bureaucracy and Culture: Middle-Class Formation in Contemporary Britain (London, 1992), 219–26Google Scholar.

6 Perkin, H., The Rise of Professional Society: England since 1880 (London, 1989), 245, 548CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rubinstein, W.D., Capitalism, Culture and Decline in Britain 1750–1990 (London, 1993), 130–1Google Scholar.

7 R.J. Morris, ‘Structure, culture and society in British towns’, in Daunton (ed.), Cambridge Urban History, 398.

8 Burnett, J., A Social History of Housing 1815–1970 (London, 1978), 168–70Google Scholar; Thompson, F.M.L., The Rise of Respectable Society (London, 1988), 173–4Google Scholar; Perkin, Professional Society, 269; Savage, M., ‘Urban history and social class: two paradigms’, Urban History, 20 (1993), 70CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Shurmer-Smith, P. and Hannan, K., Worlds of Desire, Realms of Power: A Cultural Geography (London, 1994), 192Google Scholar; Richards, J.M., The Castles on the Ground: The Anatomy of Suburbia, 2nd edn (London, 1973), 1318Google Scholar; Lewis, R. and Maude, A, The English Middle Classes (London, 1950), 18Google Scholar.

10 Gunn, S., ‘Class, identity and the urban: the middle class in England, c. 1790–1950’, Urban History, 31 (2004), 37–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 41; Morris, ‘Structure’, 415–22; Trainor, R., ‘Neither metropolitan nor provincial: the inter-war middle class’, in Kidd, A. and Nicholls, D. (eds.), The Making of the British Middle Class? Studies of Regional and Cultural Diversity since the Eighteenth Century (Sutton, 1998), 203–13Google Scholar.

11 Robson, B.T., Urban Analysis: A Study of City Structure (Cambridge, 1971), 134Google Scholar; C.J. Thomas, ‘Geographical aspects of the growth of the residential area of greater Nottingham in the 20th century’, University of Nottingham Ph.D. thesis, 1968, 259. More recent studies have allocated class within a broader valuation banding, Gordon, G., ‘The status areas of early to mid-Victorian Edinburgh’, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 4 (1979), 168–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

12 Savage et al., Property, 93–6.

13 Ibid., 35; Brewer, R., ‘A note on the changing status of the registrar general's classification of occupations’, British Journal of Sociology, 37 (1986), 131–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

14 General Register Office, Census 1951: Classification of Occupations (London, 1956), x, 9Google Scholar; Dahrendorf, R., Class and Class Conflict in an Industrial Society (London, 1959), 255Google Scholar; Hall, J. and Caradog Jones, D., ‘The social grading of occupations’, British Journal of Sociology, 1 (1950), 3155CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For an overview of classification systems, see Reid, I., Social Classes in Britain, 3rd edn (London, 1989), 5274Google Scholar.

15 Berghoff, H., ‘British businessmen as wealth-holders, 1870–1914: a closer look’, Business History, 33 (1991), 236CrossRefGoogle Scholar n. 3.

16 Ibid., 223, 226, 236; Trainor (ed.), Elites, 66–70, 388–9; Rubinstein, W.D., Men of Property: The Very Wealthy in Britain since the Industrial Revolution (New Jersey, 1981), 119–21Google Scholar; Rubinstein, ‘Education’, 186.

17 Although the subdivision by higher and lower professions does invoke a basic income differential, Routh, G., Occupation and Pay in Great Britain, 1906–60 (Cambridge, 1965), 310Google Scholar.

18 Crosland, Future, 174.

19 Perkin, Professional Society’, 258–66, 359; Rubinstein, ‘Education’, 186–9; McManus, I.C., ‘The wealth of distinguished doctors: a retrospective survey’, British Medical Journal, 331 (2005), 1520–3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Routh, Occupation, 62–74, 103–8; Rubinstein, W.D., ‘Wealth, elites and the class structure of modern Britain’, Past and Present, 76 (1977), 99126CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Perkin, Professional Society, 263, 266, 359.

21 Ridding, L., George Ridding: Schoolmaster and Bishop (London, 1908), 23Google Scholar, 242; Mellors, R., Men of Nottingham and Nottinghamshire (Nottingham, 1924), 119Google Scholar.

22 Rubinstein, ‘Education’, 186; Weber, ‘Class’, 186–7.

23 Weber, ‘Class’, 186–7.

24 Carr-Saunders, A.M. and Wilson, P.A., The Professions (Oxford, 1933), 23Google Scholar; Routh, Occupations, 62–4; Perkin, Professional Society, 78; McKibbin, Classes, 44–5. For the Nottingham solicitor sample the probate profile was as follows: lower quartile £5,505, median £11,459, upper quartile £28,539 (constant prices 1913 base). Obviously, too, professional earnings fluctuated with life cycle.

25 Trainor, Elites, 84, 99; Stacey, Tradition, 152. Across a range of 220 local leading joint stock companies (sample 1902) Wells and Hind were two and three times more likely to be named than other practices.

26 Barna, T., The Redistribution of Incomes through Public Finance in 1937 (Oxford, 1945), 68–9Google Scholar, 265–71; Atkinson, A.B., Unequal Shares (Harmondsworth, 1974), 37Google Scholar; Gunn, Public Culture, 20.

27 Using the Berghoff boundary of £25,000 at 1913 constant prices.

28 Nottinghamshire Archives, NAO CA/TR/5/4, Nottingham City Council, Epitome of Accounts for the Year Ending 31st March 1934. Rateable value median and average for the group was £68 p.a., standard deviation £20 (base year 1934), clergy excluded.

29 The rateable value of a house was its gross estimated rental, less an allowance for maintenance, repairs and insurance. Rateable value offers a significantly finer objective measure of house prestige than that say used by Lloyd Warner's Index of Status Characteristics, which graded property on a seven point scale from very poor to excellent, see Warner, W. Lloyd, Social Class in America: The Evaluation of Status (New York, 1960), 149–50Google Scholar. For Nottingham, say in the 1930s, skilled working-class families’ rateable expenditure accounted for some 3% of income at the median (±0.5% for our sample range), compared to 3–4% for lower- and lower-middle-middle-class incomes. Thereafter, for other than top earners, at incomes over £450 p.a., the rate/income ratio remained constant, Hick, J.R. and Hicks, U.K., The Incidence of Local Rates in Great Britain (Cambridge, 1945), 24–5Google Scholar, 38, 40; Routh, Occupation, 64, 68–9, 88.

30 Central Valuation Committee, First Eight Series of Representations Received by the Ministry of Health (London, 1934), 48–9Google Scholar; Rubinstein, Property, 117.

31 Masey, P., ‘The expenditure of 1,360 British middle-class households in 1938–39’, Journal of Royal Statistical Society, 105 (1942), 169Google Scholar.

32 Nottingham Guardian Journal, 4 May 1962.

33 Royal Commission on the Distribution of Income and Wealth: Report No 1 Cmd 6171 (London, 1975), 98–9; Daunton, M., ‘“Gentlemanly capitalism” and British industry 1820–1914’, Past and Present, 122 (1989), 128–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Daunton, M., Just Taxes: The Politics of Taxation in Britain 1914–1979 (Cambridge, 2002), 213CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 333; Atkinson, Unequal Shares, 126–8; Horsman, E.G., ‘The avoidance of estate duty by gifts inter vivos: some quantitative evidence’, Economic Journal, 85 (1975), 516–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Whalley, J., ‘Estate duty as a “voluntary tax”: evidence from stamp duty statistics,’ Economic Journal, 84 (1974), 638–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

34 Some 85% of adults left less than £100 on death before 1914, falling to 70% by 1950, Report of the Commissioners of Her Majesty's Inland Revenue for the Year Ending 31st March, 1901: Cd 764 (London, 1902); ibid., Year Ending 31st March 1951: Cmd 8436 (London, 1952).

35 Groak, S., The Idea of Building: Thought and Action in the Design and Production of Buildings (London, 1992), 38–9Google Scholar; Gieryn, T., ‘What buildings do’, Theory and Society, 31 (2002), 35CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

36 Lefebvre, H., The Production of Space (London, 1991), 121Google Scholar, 338; Gieryn, ‘Buildings,’ 41; Richards, Castles, 33.

37 Bachelard, G., The Poetics of Space: The Classic Look at How We Experience Intimate Places (Boston, MA, trans., 1964), 45Google Scholar, 47–8, 61.

38 Tosh, J., A Man's Place: Masculinity and the Middle-Class Home in Victorian England (Yale, 1999), 24–5Google Scholar, 47; C. Pooley, ‘Patterns on the ground: urban form, residential structure and the social construction of space’, in Daunton (ed.), Cambridge Urban History, 429, 434; Jackson, Middle Classes, 34.

39 Lefebvre, Space, 160; Savage, ‘Urban history’, 71–2.

40 Crosland, Future, 176.

41 Cannadine, D., ‘Victorian cities: how different?’, in Morris, R.J. and Rodger, R. (eds.), The Victorian City: 1820–1914 (London, 1993), 134–5Google Scholar; Edwards, K.C., ‘The Park Estate, Nottingham’, in Simpson, M.A. and Lloyd, T.H. (eds.), Middle Class Housing in Britain (Newton Abbot, 1977), 162–4Google Scholar; Gunn, Public Culture, 70.

42 Weber, ‘Class’, 186, 188; Bourdieu, Distinction, 56 ; McKibbin, Classes, 198–202; Chapman, D., The Home and Social Status (London, 1955), 155–61Google Scholar.

43 Savage et al., Property, 94.

44 Gold, J. and Gold, M., ‘“A place of delightful prospects”: promotional imagery and the selling of suburbia’, in Zonn, L. (ed.), Place Images in Media: Portrayal, Experience and Meaning (Savage, 1990), 159Google Scholar, 173; Burnett, Housing, 169, 249–51; Richards, Castles, 34–5.

45 Whitehand, J.W.R. and Carr, C.M.H., Twentieth-Century Suburbs: A Morphological Approach (London, 2001), 6880Google Scholar; Dyos, H.J., Victorian Suburb: A Study in the Growth of Camberwell (Leicester, 1961), 187–9Google Scholar.

46 Hicks, J.R., Hicks, U.K. and Lesser, C.E.V., The Problem of Valuation for Rating (Cambridge, 1944), 37, 60Google Scholar.

47 Feinstein, C., National Income, Expenditure and Output of the United Kingdom 1855–1965 (Cambridge, 1972)Google Scholar, Table 25, 65; Holmans, A.E., House Prices: Changes through Time at the National and Sub-National Level (London, 1990), 57–8Google Scholar; Bowley, A.L., Wages and Income in the United Kingdom since 1860 (Cambridge, 1937), 121–2Google Scholar. Before 1914, and in the second half of the twentieth century, the excess of income over housing cost was some 0.3–0.4% p.a. Importantly, the market distortions introduced through rent control had lessened noticeably by 1934: the standardized valuation date used in this study, see Ministry of Health, Report of the Inter-Departmental Committee on the Rent Restrictions Act Cmd 5621 (London, 1937)Google Scholar; Ministry of Health, Report to the Minister of Health by the Departmental Committee on Valuation for Rates 1939 (London, 1944), 911Google Scholar; Hicks et al., Problem, 56–60.

48 Jones, D. Caradog, ‘The cost of living for a sample of middle-class families’, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 91 (1928), 471–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Figures used are for large towns, upper and lower quintile range.

49 Morgan, N.J. and Daunton, M.J., ‘Landlords in Glasgow: a study of 1900’, Business History 25 (1983), 264–5CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rubinstein, Property, 49; Jackson, Middle Classes, 34; Raynor, J., The Middle Class (London, 1969), 88Google Scholar.

50 In the range of 10–14% extra of incomes on rent, rates and repairs on incomes of £200–£500 p.a., but rising slightly thereafter, O'Brien, P.K., ‘A middle-class budget enquiry’, Review of Economic Studies, 4 (1937), 218CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hicks and Hick, Incidence, 40–1.

51 Chapman, S.D., ‘Economy, industry and employment’, in Beckett, J. (ed.), Centenary History of Nottingham (Manchester, 1997), 491Google Scholar.

52 NAO CA/TR/5/4, Epitome of Accounts.

53 Trainor, ‘Middle class’, 692; Long, H., The Edwardian House: The Middle-Class Home in Britain 1880–1914 (Manchester, 1993), 31Google Scholar.

54 Evening News, 27 Oct. 1934; Times, 29 Oct. 1934.

55 McKibbin, Classes, 61–2, 71–3.

56 Burnett, Housing, 186–7.

57 Brewer, ‘Classification’, 131–3.

58 Robson, Urban Analysis, 105, 134.

59 Marwick, Class, passim.

60 This marries to the 1930s characterization of houses with a gross valuation of over £40 p.a. (approximately £30 p.a. rateable value) as being ‘large’ – that is middle middle class or above, Hicks et al., Problem, 83.

61 Centers, Psychology, chs. 4 and 11; Lloyd Warner, Class, passim.