Cover crop acreage has substantially increased over the last few years due to the intent of growers to capitalize on federal conservation payments and incorporate sustainable practices into agricultural systems. Despite all the known benefits, widespread adoption of cover crops still remains limited due to potential cost and management requirements. Cover crop termination is crucial, because a poorly controlled cover crop can become a weed and lessen the yield potential of the current cash crop. A field study was conducted in fall 2015 and 2016 at the Arkansas Agricultural Research and Extension Center in Fayetteville to evaluate preplant herbicide options for terminating cover crops. Glyphosate-containing treatments controlled 97% to 100% of cereal rye and wheat, but glyphosate alone controlled less than 57% of legume cover crops. The most effective way to control hairy vetch, Austrian winterpea, and crimson clover with glyphosate resulted from mixtures of glyphosate with glufosinate, 2,4-D, and dicamba. Higher rates of auxin herbicides improved control in these mixtures. Glufosinate alone or in mixture controlled legume cover crops 81% or more. Paraquat plus metribuzin was effective in terminating both cereal and legume cover crops, with control of cereal cover crops ranging from 87% to 97% and control of legumes ranging from 90% to 96%. None of these herbicides or mixtures adequately controlled rapeseed.

In Australia, widespread evolution of multi-resistant weed populations has driven the development and adoption of harvest weed seed control (HWSC). However, due to incompatibility of commonly used HWSC systems with highly productive conservation cropping systems, better HWSC systems are in demand. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of the integrated Harrington Seed Destructor (iHSD) mill on the seeds of Australia’s major crop weeds during wheat chaff processing. Also examined were the impacts of chaff type and moisture content on weed seed destruction efficacy. Initially, the iHSD mill speed of 3,000 rpm was identified as the most effective at destroying rigid ryegrass seeds present in wheat chaff. Subsequent testing determined that the iHSD mill was highly effective (>95% seed kill) on all Australian crop weeds examined. Rigid ryegrass seed kill was found to be highest for lupin chaff and lowest in barley, with wheat and canola chaff intermediate. Similarly, wheat chaff moisture reduced rigid ryegrass seed kill when moisture level exceeded 12%. The broad potential of the iHSD mill was evident, in that the reductions in efficacy due to wide-ranging differences in chaff type and moisture content were relatively small (≤10%). The results from these studies confirm the high efficacy and widespread suitability of the iHSD for use in Australian crop production systems. Additionally, as this system allows the conservation of all harvest residues, it is the best HWSC technique for conservation cropping systems.

Tall fescue is susceptible to injury from many acetolactate synthase (ALS) inhibitors used for broadleaf weed control in turfgrass. Florasulam is an ALS inhibitor that selectively controls broadleaf weeds in tall fescue, but the mechanisms for selectivity are not well understood. The objective of this research was to evaluate the physiological basis of tall fescue tolerance to florasulam. In greenhouse experiments, florasulam rates required to injure tall fescue 20% (I20) and white clover 80% (I80) measured 320 and 65 g ai ha–1, respectively. The I20 and I80 values of another ALS inhibitor, flucarbazone, on these species measured 33 and 275 g ai ha–1, respectively. In laboratory experiments, the time required to reach 50% foliar uptake for 14C-florasulam and 14C-flucarbazone measured 23 and 62 h for white clover, respectively, and >72 h for both herbicides in tall fescue. The half-lives of florasulam and flucarbazone in tall fescue were 15 and 40 h, respectively, whereas the half-life in white clover was >72 h for both herbicides. The concentrations of florasulam and flucarbazone required to inhibit ALS enzymes 50% in excised leaves of tall fescue measured >1,000 and 32 μM, respectively. The selectivity of florasulam for white clover control in tall fescue is associated with differential levels of absorption and metabolism between species. Tall fescue has faster metabolism and less ALS enzyme inhibition from florasulam as compared to a more injurious ALS inhibitor, flucarbazone, which contributes to the differential tolerance levels between these herbicides.

Evolution of glyphosate-resistant (GR) weeds, such as horseweed, presents major challenges in no-till soybean production systems. Effective GR horseweed control with preplant burndown applications is necessary to prevent potential soybean yield losses due to competition and to manage the soil weed seedbank. Halauxifen-methyl is a new synthetic auxin herbicide for broadleaf weed control in preplant burndown applications for soybean and other crops at low use rates (5 g ae ha–1). Experiments were conducted to evaluate the efficacy of herbicide treatments containing halauxifen-methyl for control of GR horseweed in comparison to existing herbicide treatments utilized in no-till GR soybean systems. Glyphosate alone controlled horseweed 33%. Herbicide treatments that included halauxifen-methyl, dicamba, or saflufenacil in combination with glyphosate controlled horseweed 87% to 96%, 89%, and 93%, respectively, 35 d after burndown application (DAB). Horseweed control, horseweed density reduction, and ground cover reduction by halauxifen-methyl plus glyphosate was similar to dicamba plus glyphosate. Horseweed control was greater for halauxifen-methyl plus glyphosate than for 2,4-D plus glyphosate. Cloransulam, cloransulam plus flumioxazin, and cloransulam plus sulfentrazone added to halauxifen-methyl plus glyphosate increased horseweed control and reduced horseweed density. No herbicide injury or soybean yield reduction was observed for treatments containing halauxifen-methyl.

A meta-analysis of 11 previously published field studies was conducted with the objectives being to (1) estimate the no observable effects dose (NOED) for dicamba on susceptible soybean; (2) evaluate available evidence for hormesis, or increased soybean yield in response to low doses of dicamba; (3) estimate the dose of dicamba likely to cause measurable soybean yield loss under field conditions; and (4) quantify the relationship between visible injury symptoms and soybean yield loss. All studies that included visible injury data (N=7) reported injury symptoms at the lowest nonzero dicamba dose applied (as low as 0.03 g ae ha−1), and therefore a NOED could not be estimated from the existing peer-reviewed literature. Based on statistical tests for hormesis, there is insufficient evidence to support any claim of increased soybean yield at low dicamba doses. Future research should include a range of dicamba doses lower than 0.03 g ha−1 to estimate a NOED and determine whether a hormesis effect is possible at or below dicamba doses that cause visible injury symptoms. Soybean is more susceptible to dicamba when exposed at flowering (R1 to R2 stage) compared with vegetative stages (V1 to V7). A dicamba dose of 0.9 g ha−1 (95% CI=0.08 to 1.7) at the flowering stage was estimated to cause 5% soybean yield loss. When exposed at vegetative stages, dicamba doses that cause less than 30% visible injury symptoms (95% CI=23 to 49%) appear unlikely to cause greater than 5% soybean yield loss; however, if soybean is exposed at flowering, visible injury symptoms greater than 12% (95% CI=8 to 16%) are likely to be associated with at least 5% soybean yield loss.

Precision weed management, an application of precision agriculture, accounts for within-field variability of weed infestation and herbicide damage. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) provide a unique platform for remote sensing of field crops. They are more efficient and flexible than manned agricultural airplanes in acquiring high-resolution images at low altitudes and low speeds. UAVs are more universal than agricultural aircraft, because the latter are used only in specific regions. We have developed and used UAV systems for red–green–blue digital and color–infrared imaging over crop fields to identify weed species, determine crop injury from dicamba at different doses, and detect naturally grown glyphosate-resistant weeds. This article presents remote sensing technologies for weed management and focuses on development and application of UAV-based low-altitude remote sensing technology for precision weed management. In particular, this article futher discusses the potential application of UAV-based plant-sensing systems for mapping the distributions of glyphosate-resistant and glyphosate-susceptible weeds in crop fields.

Introduction of the Roundup Ready® Xtend system (Monsanto Co., St. Louis, MO) provides an alternative weed management option for growers, but of concern is the risk of dicamba injury to sensitive crops, particularly soybean from off-target movement and tank contamination. Experiments were conducted to determine the response of soybean to low rates of dicamba over a wide range of application timings. Two glufosinate-resistant varieties (HBK 4950LL–indeterminate and HALO 5.45LL–determinate) commonly grown in Arkansas were chosen for these studies. Two rates of dicamba, 2.18 and 8.75 g ae ha–1 (1/256× and 1/64× of the POST labeled rate for dicamba-resistant soybean), were applied at two vegetative (V4, V6) and six reproductive (R1 to R6) growth stages. Compared to the nontreated control, dicamba applied during late vegetative and early reproductive growth of soybean caused leaf injury, plant height reduction, and seed yield loss for both soybean cultivars. Averaged across dicamba rates applied at R1, soybean seed yield was reduced 14% for the HBK 4950LL cultivar and 19% for the HALO 5.45LL cultivar. Averaged over rates, dicamba applied at R1 to the HALO 5.45LL and HBK 4950LL soybean resulted in 48% and 43% visible injury 4 wk after treatment, respectively. Grain yield was similar to that of the nontreated control when dicamba was applied at the later reproductive stages averaged across rates.

Research was conducted to evaluate the sensitivity of cover crops to a low rate of soil-applied herbicides and investigate the likelihood of herbicide carryover to fall-seeded cover crops following an irrigated corn crop. In the sensitivity study, herbicides were applied at a 1/16×rate (to simulate four half-lives) 1 d after cover crop planting, whereas for the carryover study residual herbicides were applied at a 2×rate at the maximum label corn height or growth stage and cover crops sown immediately after corn harvest. In the sensitivity experiment, atrazine, diuron, fluridone, fomesafen, metribuzin, pyrithiobac, and sulfentrazone reduced emergence of the leguminous cover crops Austrian winterpea, crimson clover, and hairy vetch. However, reduced biomass production of leguminous cover crops in the spring was only observed for atrazine, fluridone, and pyrithiobac. For rapeseed, atrazine, flumioxazin, fluridone, pyrithiobac, pyroxasulfone, sulfentrazone, and tembotrione reduced emergence, but biomass production was reduced only by atrazine and fluridone. Conversely, wheat, cereal rye, barley, oats, and triticale were not affected by soil-applied herbicides. Barley was the only cereal cover crop that showed biomass reduction due to the application of flumioxazin, fluridone, mesotrione, S-metalochlor, and sulfentrazone. In the carryover study, with the exception of crimson clover, Austrian winterpea, cereal rye, hairy vetch, rapeseed, and wheat showed no negative affect on biomass production following a 2×rate of postemergence-applied residual herbicide in corn.

Field studies were conducted in 2015 and 2016 in North Carolina to determine the response of ‘Covington’ and ‘Murasaki-29’ sweetpotato cultivars to four rates of linuron (420, 560, 840, and 1,120 g ai ha–1) alone or with S-metolachlor (803 g ai ha–1) applied 7 or 14 d after transplanting (DAP). Injury (chlorosis/necrosis and stunting) to both cultivars was greater when linuron was applied with S-metolachlor as compared to linuron applied alone. Herbicide application at 14 DAP caused greater injury (chlorosis/necrosis and stunting) to both cultivars than when applied at 7 DAP. At 4 wk after treatment (WAT), stunting of Covington and Murasaki-29 (hereafter Murasaki) from linuron at 420 to 1,120 g ha–1 increased from 27% to 50% and 25% to 53%, respectively. At 7 or 8 WAT, crop stunting of 8% or less and 0% was observed in Covington and Murasaki, respectively, regardless of application rate and timing. Murasaki root yields were similar in the linuron alone or with S-metolachlor treatments, and were lower than the nontreated check. In 2016, no. 1 and marketable sweetpotato yields of Covington were similar for the nontreated check, linuron alone, or linuron plus S-metolachlor treatments, but not in 2015. Decreases in no. 1 and marketable root yields were observed when herbicides were applied 14 DAP compared to 7 DAP for Covington in 2015 and for Murasaki in both years. No. 1 and marketable yields of Covington were similar for 420 to 1,120 g ha–1 linuron and nontreated check except marketable root yields in 2015. No. 1 and marketable sweetpotato yields of Murasaki decreased as application rates increased.

Rush skeletonweed is emerging as a regionally important weed of winter wheat production in eastern Washington. Field studies were conducted during the 2016 and 2017 crop years to evaluate several auxin herbicides applied at two seasonal timings (fall or spring) for control of rush skeletonweed in winter wheat. Clopyralid (210 g ae ha-1) provided>90% visual control of rush skeletonweed in both years of the study and aminopyralid (10 g ae ha-1) provided>80% visual control. Aminocyclopyrachlor, dicamba, and 2,4-D provided<55% control of rush skeletonweed. Season of application did not meaningfully affect efficacy of any herbicide tested. Wheat yields were reduced by 39 to 69% compared to the non-treated check when aminocyclopyrachlor was applied in the spring. Clopyralid is an effective option for control of rush skeletonweed in Pacific Northwest winter wheat.

A study was conducted to evaluate the response of glyphosate- and dicamba-tolerant (GDT) soybean and weed control from cover crop different termination intervals before and after soybean planting. Cover crop biomass was highest when terminated at planting, decreased with the 7- and 14-d preplant (DPP) and day-after-planting (DAP) timings, and again at the 14 DPP and DAP timings. Glyphosate+dicamba provided total control of cover crops by 21 DAP. Cover crop termination timing did not influence soybean population or yield. Palmer amaranth control at the 21 and 28 d after termination (DAT) was 97% to 99%. Differences in Palmer amaranth control were not detected among herbicide programs or termination intervals at the end of season rating, and all treatments provided ≥97% control. Although differences in Palmer amaranth control were not apparent at the end of the season, the delay in cover crop affected the number of days until 10-cm Palmer amaranth was present. When utilizing a wheat+hairy vetch cover crop in DGT soybeans, producers should delay cover crop termination until 11 to 14 DPP and make at least one POST application of glyphosate+dicamba+an additional herbicide mode of action (MOA) to maximize Palmer amaranth control and soybean yields.

Each year there are multiple reports of drift occurrences, and the majority of drift complaints in rice are from imazethapyr or glyphosate. In 2014 and 2015, multiple field experiments were conducted near Stuttgart, AR, and near Lonoke, AR, to evaluate whether insecticide seed treatments would reduce injury from glyphosate or imazethapyr drift or decrease the recovery time following exposure to a low rate of these herbicides. Study I was referred to as the “seed treatment study,” and Study II was the “drift timing study.” In the seed treatment study the conventional rice cultivar ‘Roy J’ was planted, and herbicide treatments included imazethapyr at 10.5 g ai ha–1, glyphosate at 126 g ae ha–1, or no herbicide. Each plot had either a seed treatment of thiamethoxam, clothianidin, chlorantraniliprole, or no insecticide seed treatment. The herbicides were applied at the two- to three-leaf growth stage. Crop injury was assessed 1, 3, and 5 wk after application. Averaged over site-years, thiamethoxam-treated rice had less injury than rice with no insecticide seed treatment at each rating, along with an increased yield. Clothianidin-treated rice had an increased yield over no insecticide seed treatment, but the reduction in injury for both herbicides was less pronounced than in the thiamethoxam-treated plots. Overall, chlorantraniliprole was generally the least effective of the three insecticides in reducing injury from either herbicide and in protecting rice yield potential. A second experiment conducted at Stuttgart, AR, was meant to determine whether damage to rice from glyphosate and imazethapyr was influenced by the timing (15, 30, and 45 d after planting) of exposure to herbicides for thiamethoxam-treated and nontreated rice. There was an overall reduction in injury with the use of thiamethoxam, but the reduction in injury was not dependent on the timing of the drift event. Reduction in damage from physical drift of glyphosate and imazethapyr as well as increased yields over the absence of an insecticide seed treatment appear to be an added benefit.

Soybean consultants from Arkansas, Louisiana, southeast Missouri, Mississippi, and Tennessee were surveyed in 2016 to assess weed management practices and the prevalence of herbicide-resistant weeds in midsouthern U.S. soybean production. The consultants surveyed represented 13%, 28%, 8%, 16%, and 5% of the total soybean area planted in Arkansas, Louisiana, southeast Missouri, Mississippi, and Tennessee, respectively. Of the total scouted area, 78% of the consultants said their growers planted glyphosate-resistant soybean in 2016, with 18% planting glufosinate-resistant (LibertyLink®), primarily due to familiarity with and cost of the technology. Although 94% of the consultants determined that glufosinate was most effective on killing Palmer amaranth, the primary concern associated with controlling herbicide-resistant weeds was the associated cost, followed by return profit and time constraints. Palmer amaranth, morningglory species, horseweed, barnyardgrass, and Italian ryegrass were the five most problematic weeds in soybean across the five states. Palmer amaranth was the most problematic and important weed in each state individually. The increased concern (77% of consultants) with this species was attributed to the rising concern with and occurrence of protoporphyrinogen oxidase–resistant Palmer amaranth. Consultants were of the opinion that more research was needed on cover crops and the new traited technologies in order to improve weed management in soybean.

Precision means being exact and accurate and is an important management component for cropping systems. However, precision does not mean integration, which encompasses spatial and temporal dimensions and is a necessary practice rivaling precision. True IWM merges precision and integration by incorporating advanced technology that allows for greater flexibility of inputs and enhanced responsiveness to field conditions. Examples of this approach are non-existent due to a lack of suitable technological tools and a need for a paradigm shift. Herein a potential model startup company is offered as a guide to advance beyond precision weed control to true integration. The critical components of such a company include grower connections, investor support, proven and reliable technology, and adaptability and innovation in the agricultural technology market. The company with the vision and incentive to make true IWM a reality will be the first to more fully integrate available tools using technology, thus helping many growers overcome ongoing challenges associated with resistance, soil erosion, drift, and weed seedbanks.

Field experiments were conducted in 2014 and 2015 in Fayetteville, Arkansas, to evaluate the residual activity of acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase)–inhibiting herbicides for monocot crop injury and weed control. Conventional rice, quizalofop-resistant rice, grain sorghum, and corn crops were evaluated for tolerance to soil applications of six herbicides (quizalofop at 80 and 160 g ai ha–1, clethodim at 68 and 136 g ai ha–1, fenoxaprop at 122 g ai ha–1, cyhalofop at 313 g ai ha–1, fluazifop at 210 and 420 g ai ha–1, and sethoxydim at 140 and 280 g ai ha–1). Overhead sprinkler irrigation of 1.3 cm was applied immediately after treatment to half of the plots, and the crops planted into the treated plots at 0, 7, and 14 d after herbicide treatment. In 2014, injury from herbicide treatments increased with activation for all crops evaluated, except for quizalofop-resistant rice. At 14 d after treatment (DAT) in 2014, corn and grain sorghum were injured 19% and 20%, respectively, from the higher rate of sethoxydim with irrigation activation averaged over plant-back dates. Conventional rice was injured 13% by the higher rate of fluazifop in 2014. Quizalofop-resistant rice was injured no more than 4% by any of the graminicides evaluated in either year. In 2015, a rainfall event occurred within 24 h of initiating the experiment; thus, there were no differences between activation via irrigation or by rainfall. However, as in 2014, grain sorghum and corn were injured 16% and 13%, respectively, by the higher rate of sethoxydim, averaged over plant-back dates. All herbicides provided little residual control of grass weeds, mainly broadleaf signalgrass and barnyardgrass. These findings indicate the need to continue allowing a plant-back interval to rice following a graminicide application, unless quizalofop-resistant rice is to be planted. The plant-back interval will vary by graminicide and the amount of moisture received following the application.

In 2015, winter wheat growers in Virginia reported commercial failures of thifensulfuron to control mouse-ear cress. This was the first reported case of field-evolved acetolactate synthase (ALS) resistance in mouse-ear cress, so research was conducted to evaluate alternative herbicide options as well as to document potential yield loss in winter wheat from mouse-ear cress. Efficacy studies were conducted at three site-years in 2015 to 2016 and 2016 to 2017 as well as a POST greenhouse trial. In the PRE study, flumioxazin, pyroxasulfone, saflufenacil, and metribuzin resulted in more than 80% mouse-ear cress control 15 wk after planting across all sites with no observable wheat injury. No differences were observed in wheat yield in two of three sites in the PRE herbicide study; yield differences were attributed to common chickweed and not to mouse-ear cress. In the POST herbicide study, 2,4-D, dicamba, and metribuzin resulted in greater than 75% control in the field and greenhouse. Metribuzin, dicamba, and pyroxsulam resulted in crop injury 3 wk after treatment at some sites, but injury was transient. Yield from all POST treatments was similar to the nontreated plots. No yield loss was observed by mouse-ear cress densities greater than 300 plants m–2, indicating that mouse-ear cress is not very competitive with winter wheat. Growers should make herbicide decisions based on other weeds in the field and can incorporate the aforementioned herbicides for mouse-ear cress control.

Glyphosate-resistant (GR) and multiple herbicide–resistant (groups 2 and 9) Canada fleabane have been confirmed in 30 and 23 counties in Ontario, respectively. The widespread incidence of herbicide-resistant Canada fleabane highlights the importance of developing integrated weed management strategies. One strategy is to suppress Canada fleabane using cover crops. Seventeen different cover crop monocultures or polycultures were seeded after winter wheat harvest in late summer to determine GR Canada fleabane suppression in corn grown the following growing season. All cover crop treatments seeded after wheat harvest suppressed GR Canada fleabane in corn the following year. At 4 wk after cover crop emergence (WAE), estimated cover crop ground cover ranged from 31% to 68%, a density of 124 to 638 plants m–2, and a range of biomass from 29 to 109 g m–2, depending on cover crop species. All of the cover crop treatments suppressed GR Canada fleabane in corn grown the following growing season from May to September compared to the no cover crop control. Among treatments evaluated, annual ryegrass (ARG), crimson clover (CC)/ARG, oilseed radish (OSR)/CC/ARG, and OSR/CC/cereal rye (CR) were the best treatments for the suppression of GR Canada fleabane in corn. ARG alone or in combination with CC provided the most consistent GR Canada fleabane suppression, density reduction, and biomass reduction in corn. Grain corn yields were not affected by the use of the cover crops evaluated for Canada fleabane suppression.

Benzobicyclon will be the first 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD)–inhibiting herbicide available in US rice production pending registration completion. An observation of benzobicyclon controlling weedy rice in two field trials prompted a greenhouse and field evaluation to determine if benzobicyclon would control weedy rice accessions from Arkansas, Mississippi, and southeastern Missouri. A total of 100 accessions were screened in the greenhouse and field. Percentage mortality was determined in the greenhouse, and percentage control was recorded in the field. Benzobicyclon at 371 g ai ha–1 caused at least 80% mortality of 22 accessions in the greenhouse and at least 80% control of 30 accessions in the field. For most accessions, individual plants within the accession varied in response to benzobicyclon. Based on these results, the sensitivity of weedy rice to benzobicyclon varies across accessions collected in the midsouthern United States, and it may provide an additional control option for weedy rice in some fields.

Weed control is a challenging aspect of pumpkin production. Winter rye mulches may offer growers a means to manage weeds in pumpkin; however, rye degradation leads to an immobilization of soil nitrogen. Combining winter rye with a nitrogen fixing legume such as hairy vetch is an interesting option that may solve this problem. Twelve combinations including three hairy vetch seeding rates, two termination dates and the use or not of glyphosate before rolling cover crops were studied during the 2013 and 2014 growing seasons at the Laval University Agronomic Station in Saint-Augustin-de-Desmaures, Quebec, Canada to evaluate weed control and effects on pumpkin production. Adding hairy vetch to winter rye provided no benefits because of severe winterkill of the legume. Using glyphosate was necessary to prevent rye regrowth. Pumpkin growth was better and yields were higher than in the plots were no glyphosate was used. Mulches established at flowering (Zadoks 69) provided about 2,000 kg ha−1 more aboveground dry biomass than at early heading (Zadoks 51). This high biomass was essential in glyphosate treated plots in order to maintain excellent weed control throughout the growing season. When compared with the no-mulch weed-free control, yield in Zadoks 69+glyphosate treatment was lower in 2013 but comparable in 2014.