Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-7cvxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T23:34:07.145Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Review of Newcastle disease virus with particular references to immunity and vaccination

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2007

S.O. Al-Garib ,
A.L.J. Gielkens ,
E. Gruys  and
G. Kochi
S.O. Al-Garib
Affiliation:
Central Institute Disease Control (CIDC-Lelystad), P.O. Box 2004, 8203 AA Lelystad, The Netherlands Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, P.O. Box 80158, 3508 TD, Utrecht, The Netherlands Department of Poultry Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Al-Fateh University, P.O. Box 13662 Tripoli, Libya
A.L.J. Gielkens
Affiliation:
Institute for Animal Science and Health (ID-Lelystad), P.O. Box 65, 8200 AB, Lelystad, The Netherlands
E. Gruys
Affiliation:
Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, P.O. Box 80158, 3508 TD, Utrecht, The Netherlands
G. Kochi*
Affiliation:
Central Institute Disease Control (CIDC-Lelystad), P.O. Box 2004, 8203 AA Lelystad, The Netherlands
*
*Corresponding author: e-mail: g.koch@id.dlo.nl
Get access

Abstract

Newcastle disease (ND) is a highly contagious disease. The present paper deals with classification of ND virus (NDV), clinical signs and pathology, virus strain classification and molecular backgrounds for the pathogenicity. Major emphasis is reviewing immunity and vaccination. Clinical forms of the disease vary depending on many factors, but mainly on the virulence of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) strains. Virulent strains are considered List A pathogens by the ‘Office International des Epizooties’ (OIE). The virulence has been traditionally determined using in vivo pathogenicity tests to distinguish between highly, moderately and low virulent isolates. More recently, molecular biological techniques like polymerase chain reaction and sequencing have been described to differentiate virulent from non- virulent strains.

The systemic and mucosal immune systems are considered to function more or less independently. Systemic antibodies are essential elements in protection against ND, whereas the local antibodies limit multiplication of NDV at the site of entry. Cytotoxic T lymphocytes specific against NDV have been detected in the spleen of vaccinated birds, however, their contribution to protection remains to be elucidated.An increase of the number of various leukocyte subsets was noticed in the respiratory tract and the Harderian gland (HG), which favours involvement of local cellular immunity in the defence against NDV infection. It is tempting to speculate that the local lymphoid infiltrates are involved in first defence and that cytolytic cells clear virus by directly lysing infected target cells at the site of NDV inoculation. Secondly, various cell types, mainly T-lymphocytes and macrophages, may be equipped to produce a range of cytokines with antiviral activity and cytokines that stimulate B-lymphocytes to proliferate and differentiate into antibody-forming cells responsible for the local antibody production against NDV.

Keywords

Newcastle disease virusvaccinehumoralcellularimmunity
Type
Reviews
Information
World's Poultry Science Journal , Volume 59 , Issue 2 , June 2003 , pp. 185 - 200
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adir, B.M., Mcneilly, F., Mcconnell, C.D., Todd, D., Nelson, R.L. and Mcnulty, M.S. (1991) Effects of chicken anemia agent on lymphokine production and lymphocyte transformation in experimentally infected chickens. Avian Disease 35: 783–792.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ahmad, J. and Sharma, J.M. (1992) Evaluation of a modified-live virus vaccine administered in ovo to protect chickens against Newcastle disease. American Journal of Veterinary Research 53: 1999–2004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alexander, D.J. (1988) Newcastle disease: Methods of spread.In: Alexander, D.J. (Ed.), Newcastle disease, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, pp.257–272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alexander, D.J. (1995) Newcastle disease in countries of the European Union. Avian Pathology 24: 3–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alexander, D.J. (1997) Newcastle disease and other avian pardmyxoviridae infections. In: Calnek, B.W with, John Barnes, H, Beard, C.W, McDougald, L.R, Saif, Y.M. (Ed.), Diseases of Poultry, North America, Iowa, pp. 541–569.Google Scholar
Alexander, D.J. (2000) Newcastle disease and other avian paramyxoviruses. Revue Scientifique and Technique Office des International Epizooties (OIE) 19: 443–362.Google ScholarPubMed
Alexander, D.J. and Allan, W.H. (1974) Newcastle disease virus pathotypes. Avian Pathology 3: 269–278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alexander, D.J., Manvell, R.J., Lowings, J.P., Frost, K.M., Collins, M.S., Russell, P.H. and Smith, J.E. (1997) Antigenic diversity and similarities detected in avian paramyxovirus type 1 (Newcastle disease virus) isolated using monoclonal antibodies. Avian Pathology 26: 399–418.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Al-Garib, S.O., Gruys, E., Gielkens, A.L.J. and Koch, G. (2002) Tissue tropism and target cells of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) in the chicken embryo. In: Dridi, A., Kechrid, F., El-Hichori, K., Boussalmi, B., Haddouchi, H., Ben Ehedi, S., Kaouach, L., Chebbi, M., (ed), Proceeding of the 27th World Veterinary Congress, Tunis, September 25–29, 2002, Abstract number 513, pp, 244–245.Google Scholar
Al-garib, S.O., Gielkens, A.L.J., Gruys, E., Hartog, and Koch, G. (2003a) Immunoglobulin class distribution of systemic and mucosal antibody response to Newcastle disease in chickens. Avian Disease, in press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Al-garib, S.O., Gruys, E., Gielkens, A.L.J. and Koch, G. (2003b) Detection of antibody forming cells directed against Newcastle disease virus and their Ig-class using double immuno-enzyme histochemistry. Avian Disease, in press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allan, W.H., Lancaster, J.E. and Toth, B. (1978 ) Newcastle disease vaccines, their production and use.Food Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Animal Production Series, No.10. FAO, Rome.Google Scholar
Baba, T., Masumoto, K., Nishida, S., Kajikawa, T. and Mitsui, M. (1988) Harderian gland dependency of immunoglobulin A production in the lacrimal fluid of chicken. Immunology 65: 67–71.Google ScholarPubMed
Beard, C.W. and Easterday, B.C. (1967a) The influence of the route of administration of Newcastle disease virus on host response I. Serological and virus isolation studies. Journal of infectious Disease 117: 55–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beard, C.W. and Easterday, B.C. (1967b) The influence of the route of administration of Newcastle disease virus on host response 11. Studies on artificial passive immunity. Journal of infectious Disease 117: 62–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beard, C.W. and Hanson, R.P. (1984) Newcastle disease. In: Hofstad, M.S, Barnes, H.J, Calnek, B.W., Reid, W.M., Yoder, H.W. (Ed.), Diseases of poultry, Iowa State University Press, Ames, pp. 452–470.Google Scholar
Beaudette, F.A., Bivins, J.A. and Miller, B.R. (1949) Newcastle disease immunization with live virus. Cornell Veterinarian 39: 302–334.Google Scholar
Bhaiyat, M.I., Ochiai, K., Itakura, C., Islam, M.A. and Kida, H. (1994) Brain lesions in young broiler chickens naturally infected with a mesogenic strain of NDV. Avian Pathology 23: 693–708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Borland, L.J. and Allan, W.H. (1980) Laboratory tests for comparing live lentogenic Newcastle disease. Avian Pathology 9: 45–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, C., King, D.J. and Seal, B. (1999) Pathogenesis of Newcastle disease in chickens experimentally. Veterinary Pathology 36: 125–132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, C., King, D.J. and Seal, B. (1999) Detection of a macrophage-specific antigen and the production of interferon gamma in chickens infected with Newcastle disease virus. Avian Disease 43: 696–703.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, R.S.F. (1986) The pathogenesis and pathology of avian respiratory infection. Veterinary Bulletin 56: 521–543.Google Scholar
Cannon, M.J. and Russell, P.H. (1986) Secondary in vitro stimulation of specific cytotoxic cells to Newcastle disease virus in chickens. Avian Pathology 15: 731–740.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caporale, E.P., RAGGI, L.G. and Semproni, G. (1978) Local resistance of chicken respiratory tract to viral infections. Zentralblartt für Vetinärmedizin Reihe B 25: 383–393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chambers, P., Millar, N.S., Bingham, R.W. and Emmerson, P.T. (1986) Molecular cloning of complementary DNA to Newcastle disease virus and the nucleotide sequence analysis of the junction between the genes encoding the haemagglutinin-neuraminidase and the large protein. Journal of General Virology 67: 475–486.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheville, N.F. and Beard, C.W. (1972) Cytopathology of Newcastle disease.The influence of bursal and thymic lymphoid systems in the chicken. Laboratory Investigation 27: 129–143.Google ScholarPubMed
Cheville, N.F., Beard, C.W. and Heminover, J.A. (1972a) Comparative cytopathology of Newcastle disease virus.Use of ferritin-labeled antibody on allantoic and intestinal epithelium. Veterinary Pathology 9: 38–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cheville, N.F, Stone, H., Riley, J. and Ritchie, A.E. (1972b) Pathogenesis of virulent Newcastle disease in chickens. Journal of American Veterinary Medical Association 161: 169–179.Google ScholarPubMed
Collins, M.S., Bashiruddin, J.B. and Alexander, D.J. (1993) Deduced amino acid sequences at the fusion protein cleavage site of Newcastle disease viruses showing variation in antigenicity and pathogenicity. Archives of Virology 128: 363–370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daniele, R.P. (1990) Immunoglobulin secretion in the airways. Annual Review of Physiology 52: 177–195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Leeuw, O. and Peeters, B. (1999) Complete nucleotide sequence of Newcastle disease virus: evidence for the existence of a new genus within the subfamily Paramyxovirinae. Journal of General Virology 80: 131–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erdei, J., Baschir, K., Kaleta, E.F., Shortridge, K.F. and Lommiezi, B. (1987) Newcastle disease vaccine (La Sota) strain specific monoclonal antibody. Archives of Virology 96: 265–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ewert, D.L., Eidson, C.S. and Dawe, D.L. (1977) Factors influencing the appearance of antibody in tracheal washes and serum of young chickens after exposure to Newcastle disease virus. Infection and Immunity 18: 138–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ewert, D.L. and Eidson, C.S. (1977) Effect of bursectomy and depletion of immunoglobulin A on the antibody production and resistance of respiratory challenge after local and systemic vaccination of chickens with Newcastle disease virus. Infection and Immunity 18: 146–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ewert, D.L., Barger, B.O. and Eidson, C.S. (1979) Local antibody response in chickens; analysis of antibody to Newcastle disease virus by solid-phase radioimmunoassay and immunofluorescence with class-specific antibody for chicken immunoglobulins. Infection and Immunity 24: 269–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ghumman, J.S. and Bankowski, R.A. (1975) In vitro DNA synthesis in lymphocytes from turkeys vaccinated with La Sota, TC and inactivated Newcastle disease vaccines. Avian Disease 20: 18–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glickman, R.L., Syddal, R.J., Iorio, R.M., Sheehan, J.P. and Bratt, M.A. (1988) Quantitative basic residue requirements in the cleavage-activation site of the fusion glycoprotein as a determinant of virulence for Newcastle disease virus. Journal of Virology 62: 354–360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldhaft, T.M. (1980) Historical note on the origin of the La Sota strain of Newcastle disease virus. Avian Disease 24: 297–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gotoh, B., Ohnishi, Y., Inocencio, N.M., Esaki, E., Nakayama, K., Barr, P.J., Thomas, G. and Nagai, Y. (1992) Mammalian subtilisin-related proteinases in cleavage activation of the paramyxovirus fusion glycoprotein: Superiority of furin/PACE to PC2 or PCI/PC3. Journal of Virology 66: 6391–6397.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haddad, E.E., Whitfill, C.E., Avakian, A.P., Ijnk, D.B. and Wakenell, P.S. (2002) Safety and Efficacy of a Novel Newcastle Disease Vaccine Administered in ovo to SPF and Commercial Broiler Birds. Paper presented at the Western Poultry Disease Conference (Complete Address)Google Scholar
Hamid, H., Campbell, R.S.F and Lamlchhan, C. (1990) The pathology of infection of chickens with the lentogenic V4 strain of NDV. Avian Pathology 19: 687–696.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heller, E.D., Levy, A.M., Vaiman, R. and Schwartsburd, B. (1997) Chicken-embryo fibroblasts produce two types of interferon upon stimulation with Newcastle disease virus. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 57: 289–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hitchner, S.B. and Johnson, E.P. (1948) A virus of low virulence for immunizing fowls against Newcastle disease (avian pneumoencephalitis), Veterinary Medicine 43: 525–530.Google ScholarPubMed
Holmes, H.C. (1979) Virus neutralizing antibody in sera and secretion of the upper and lower respiratory tract of the chicken inoculated with live and inactivated Newcastle disease virus. Journal of Comparative Pathology 89: 21–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoss, A., Zwarthoff, E.C. and Zawatzki, R. (1989) Differential expression of interferon alpha and beta induced with Newcastle disease virus in mouse macrophage cultures. Journal of General Virology 70: 575–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jeurissen, S.H.M., Boonstra-Blom, A.G, Al-Garib, S.O., Hartog, L. and Koch, G. (2000a) Defence mechanisms against viral infection in poultry. Veterinary Quarterly 22: 204–208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jeurissen, S.H.M., Claassen, E., Boonstra-Blom, A.G, Vervelde, L. and Janse, E.M. (2000b) Immunocytochemical techniques to investigate the pathogenesis of infection micro-organisms and the concurrent immune response of the host. Developmental and Comparative Immunology 24: 141–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaiser, P. (1996) Avian cytokines. In: Davison, T.F., Morris, T.R. and Payne, L.N., (Ed.), Poultry Immunology 1st edn. Carfax Publishing Company, UK, pp.83–114.Google Scholar
Kaleta, E.F. and Baldauf, C. (1988) Newcastle disease in free-living and pet birds. In: Alexander, D.J. (Ed.), Newcastle disease, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, pp.197–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kotani, T., Odagiri, Y., Nakamura, J. and Horiuchi, T. (1987) Pathological changes of tracheal mucosa in chickens infected with lentogenic NDV. Avian Disease 31: 491–497.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kouwenhoven, B. (1993) Newcastle disease, In: Horzinek, C. (Ed.), Virus infections of vertebrates series, Volume 4, McFerran, J.B., McNulty, M.S. (Eds.) Virus infections of Birds, Elsevier Science Publishers B.V, pp.341–362.Google Scholar
Lam, K.M. and Hao, Q. (1987) Vaccination of cyclophosphamide-treated chickens against Newcastle disease virus infection. Veterinary Microbiology 15: 41–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lancaster, J.E. (1981) Newcastle disease. In: Gibba, E.P.J. (Ed.), Virus Disease of Food Animals, Vol II, Disease Monographs, Academic Press, New York, pp.433–465.Google Scholar
Lancaster, J.E. and Alexander, D.J. (1975) Newcastle disease: virus and spread. Monograph No II. Canada Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, pp. 79.Google Scholar
LÊ Long, L., Brasseur, R., Wemers, C., Meulemans, G. and Burny, A. (1988) Fusion (F) protein gene of Newcastle disease virus: Sequence and hydrophobicity comparative analysis between virulent and avirulent strains. Virus Genes 1: 333–50.Google Scholar
Malkinson, M. and Small, P.A. Jr. (1977) Local immunity against Newcastle disease virus in the newly hatched chickens respiratory tract. Infection and Immunity 16: 587–592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marino, O.C. and Hanson, R.P. (1987) Cellular and humoral response of in ovo-bursectomized chickens to experimental challenge with velogenic Newcastle disease virus. Avian Disease 31:293–301.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Markowski-Grimsrud, C.J. and Schat, K.A. (2001) Proceedings of the II International Symposium on infectious bursal disease and chicken anemia, Rauischholzhausen, Germany.Google Scholar
McConell, C.D., Adair, B.M. and Mcnulty, M.S. (1993a) Effects of chicken anemia virus on cell-mediated immune function in chickens exposed to the virus by a natural route. Avian Disease 37: 366–374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McConell, C.D., Adair, B.M. and Mcnulty, M.S. (1993b) Effects of chicken anemia virus on macrophage function in chickens. Avian Disease 37: 358–365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mcferran, J.B. and Mccracken, R.M. (1988) Newcastle disease.In: Alexander, D.J (Ed.), Newcastle disease, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, pp.161–183.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mebatsion, T., Verstegen, S., Romer Oberdorfer, A., Schrier, C.C. and De Vaan, L.T.C. (2001) A recombinant Newcastle disease virus with low-level V protein expression is immunogenic and lacks pathogenicity for chicken embryos. Journal of Virology 75: 420–428.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meulemans, G., Gonze, M., Carlier, M.C., Petit, P., Burny, A. and LÊ Long, L. (1986) Protective effects of HN and F glycoprotein-specific monoclonal antibodies on experimental Newcastle disease. Avian Pathology 15: 761–768.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meulemans, G., Gonze, M., Carlier, M.C., Petit, P., Burny, A. and LÊ Long, L. (1987) Evaluation of the use of monoclonal antibodies to hemagglutination and fusion glycoproteins of Newcastle disease virus for virus identification and strain differentiation purposes. Archives of Virology 92: 55–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meulemans, G., Letellier, C., Gonze, M., Carlier, M.C. and Burny, A. (1988) Newcastle disease virus F glycoprotein expressed from a recombinant vaccinia virus vector protects chickens from challenge. Avian Pathology 17: 821–827.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nagai, Y., Klenk, H.D. and Rott, R. (1976) Proteolytic cleavage of the viral glycoproteins and its significance for the virulence of Newcastle disease virus. Virology 72: 494–508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nagy, E., Krell, P.J., Dulac, G.C. and Derbyshire, J.B. (1991) Vaccination against Newcastle disease with a recombinant baculovirus hemagglutinin-neuraminidase subunit vaccine. Avian Disease 35: 585–590.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nishino, Y., Nikura, M., Suwa, T., Onuma, M., Gotoh, B., Nagai, Y. and Mikami, Y. (1991) Analysis of the protective effect of the haemagglutinin-neuraminidase protein in Newcastle disease virus infection. Journal of General Virology 72: 1187–1190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Office International Des Epizooties (OIE) (1996) Newcastle disease.In: Manual of standards for diagnostic tests and vaccine. 3rd Ed. OIE, Paris, pp. 161–169.Google Scholar
Office International Des Epizooties (OIE) (2000) Newcastle disease.In: Manual of standards for diagnostic tests and vaccine. 4rd Ed. OIE, Paris, pp. 221–232.Google Scholar
Ojok, L. and Brown, G. (1996) An immunohistochemical study of the pathogenesis of virulent viscerotropic Newcastle disease in chickens. Journal of Comparative Pathology 115: 221–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parry, S.H. and Aitken, I.D. (1977) Local immunity in the respiratory tract of the chicken. II. The secretory immune response to Newcastle disease virus and the role of IgA. Veterinary Microbiology 2: 143–165.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peeters, B.H., De Leeuw, O., Koch, G. and Gielkens, A.L.J. (1999) Rescue of Newcastle disease virus from Cloned cDNA: Evidence that cleavability of fusion protein is a major determinant for virulence. Journal of virology 73: 5001–5009.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perey, D.Y.E. and Dent, P.B. (1975) Host resistance mechanism to Newcastle disease virus in immunodeficient chickens. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 2: 365–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reeve, P., Alexander, D.J. and Allan, W.H. (1974) Derivation of an isolate of low virulence from the Essex ‘70 strain of Newcastle disease virus. The Veterinary Record 94: 38–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reynolds, D.L. and Maraqa, A.D. (2000a) Protective immunity against Newcastle disease virus: The role of antibodies specific to Newcastle disease virus polypeptides. Avian Disease 44: 138–144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reynolds, D.L. and Maraqa, A.D. (2000b) Protective immunity against Newcastle disease virus: The role of cell-mediated immunity. Avian Disease 44: 145–154.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rott, R. (1979) Molecular basis of infectivity and pathogenicity of myxoviruses. Archives of Virology 59: 285–298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rott, R. and Klenk, H.D. (1988) Molecular basis of infectivity and pathogenicity of Newcastle disease virus. In: Alexander, D.J., (Ed.), Newcastle disease, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, pp.98–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, P.H. and Koch, G. (1993) Local antibody forming cell responses to the Hitchner B1 and Ulster strains of Newcastle disease virus. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 37: 165–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, P.H., Dwivedi, P.N. and Davison, T.F. (1997) The effects of cyclosporin A and cyclophosphamide on the populations of B and T cells and virus in the Harderian gland of chickens vaccinated with the Hitchner B1 strain of Newcastle disease virus. Veterinary Immunology and lmmunopathology 60: 171–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samson, A.C.R. (1988) Virus structure.In: Alexander, D.J (Ed.), Newcastle disease, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, pp.23–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seal, B.S., King, D.J. and Sellers, H.S. (2000) The avian response to Newcastle disease virus. Developmental and Comparative Immunology 24: 257–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shengqing, Y., Kishida, N., Ito, H., Kida, H., Otsuki, K., Kawaoka, Y. and Ito, T. (2002) Generation of Velogenic Newcastle Disease Viruses from a Nonpathogenic Waterfowl Isolate by Passaging in Chickens. Virology 301: 206–211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sick, C., Schultz, U., Munster, U., Meier, J., Kaspers, B. and Staeheli, P. (1998) Promoter structures and differential responses to viral and nonviral inducers of chicken type I interferon genes. Journal of Biological-Chemistry 273: 9749–9754.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Srinivasappa, G.B., Snyder, D.B., Marquqrdt, W.W. and King, D.J. (1986) Isolation of a monoclonal antibody with specificity for commonly employed vaccine strains of Newcastle disease virus. Avian Disease 30: 562–567.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Timms, L. and Alexander, D.J. (1977) Cell mediated immune response of chickens to Newcastle disease vaccines. Avian Pathology 6: 51–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toth, T.E. (2000) Nonspecific cellular defence of the avian respiratory system: a review. Developmental and Comparative Immunology 24: 121–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vainio, O. and Toivanen, A. (1987) Cellular cooperation in immunity.In: Toivanen, A. and Toivanen, P. (Eds), Avian Immunology: Basis and Practice Volume II, CRC Press Inc.Boca Raton, Florida, p.8–12.Google Scholar
Westbury, H.A. (2001) Newcastle disease virus: an evolving pathogen? Avian Pathology 30: 5–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilde, A., Mcquain, C. and Morrison, T. (1986) Identification of the sequence content of four polycistronic transcripts synthesized in Newcastle disease virus infected cell. Virus Research 5: 77–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zinkernagel, R.M. (1994) Some general aspects of immunity to viruses. Vaccine 12: 1493–1494.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zucker, R., Jauker, U. and Droege, W. (1973) Cellular composition of the chicken thymus: effects of neonatal bursectomy and hydrocortisone treatment. European Journal of Immunology 3: 812–818.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed